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Файл:Ординатура / Хирургия / Библиотека им академика М.И. Перельмана / Книга_6035_Библиотеки_им_академика_М_И_Перельмана.pdf
CHAPTER 3
Herbal Healing: Plant-Based Natural Products
ANCHAL SHARMA
1
1,*
and MEENAKSHI THAKUR
2
2
*Corresponding author
ABSTRACT
All traditional medical practices, including Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani, yoga, naturopathy,
and homeopathy, are mostly based on the use of plants. For many years, people seek
herbal remedies, conventional therapies, and conventional doctors as the primary source
of healthcare. The World Health Organization estimates that 60% of the world’s population uses herbal medicine and that 80% of those in underdeveloped nations rely entirely
on it for their basic medical requirements. Plant products such as secondary metabolites
are the main constituents of drugs. Compounds that are derived from plants and have
industrial, food, and medical uses are known as plant-derived natural products. Due to
lack of knowledge about plant use and value, many plants are underutilization even those
that have high medicinal value. Hence this study provides valuable information about the
natural compounds of important plants and their medicinal value which will benefit the
development of pharmaceutical products. It will also help to promote the conservation of
these plants due significant medicinal value.
3.1 INTRODUCTION
A variety of natural products are derived from plants with numerous medicinal
characteristics that have always gained overwhelming focus and are being studied to
create new drugs (Singh, 2006). Chemical substances produced by living things and
found in nature are known as natural products. These chemicals are employed in a variety
of industries and applications such as medicines and cosmetics, food, and agricultural
products. Natural products can be found in a variety of sources, including plants, fungi,
bacteria, and even marine organisms. Natural products are often used as ingredients in
food, cosmetics, and drugs due to their therapeutic and medicinal properties.
44
Plants create a wide variety of organic compounds, the majority of which do not seem
to be directly related to growth and development. These organic molecules, also known
as secondary metabolites, are dispersed in a variety of ways across the kingdom of plants.
Secondary metabolism has evolved in response to environmental needs and challenges. Their
functions, many of which are yet unclear, are frequently becoming clearer (Croteau et al.,
2000). A diverse range of natural products is synthesized collectively by plants (Wink,
1999). Plant-derived natural products are compounds that are derived from plants and can
be used for medicinal, industrial, and food applications. Since time immemorial the only
source of medicine is natural products. Traditional medicine, the oldest healthcare form in
the world, uses natural products to cure many diseases and illnesses. The different plants
including herbs, vegetables, spices, fruits, and seeds are the source of plant-based natural
products. Oils, extracts, tinctures, ointments, and powders are the most common forms in
which they are extracted and rened for use. Due to their well-known antibacterial, antiinammatory, and antioxidant qualities, they are helpful for a variety of medical disorders.
3.2 CLASSIFICATION OF SECONDARY METABOLITES
Plant-based natural chemicals have long been a useful source of medicines and continue
to be crucial in developing new medications. Alkaloids, terpenes, and other chemicals, as
well as other natural products with pharmacological activity , are examples of plant-derived
natural products. These substances have a long history of usage as medications and can be
used to treat a wide variety of ailments.
There are around 2,140,000 secondary metabolites known, and they may be divided into
three main classes based on their production processes and structural properties. (1) Phenolic
compounds; (2) Terpenes/Terpenoids; and (3) Nitrogen- and sulfur-containing alkaloids.
3.2.1 PHENOLIC COMPOUNDS
Phenolic compounds are byproducts of the metabolism of phenylpropanoid in pentose
phosphate and plant shikimic acid (Randhir et al., 2004). They range in complexity from
complex phenolic compounds to simple phenolic molecules, but they always have benzene
rings with one or more hydroxyl substituents (Velderrain-Rodríguez et al., 2014). The
binding of glucose to the pentose phosphate pathway and the irreversible transformation
of glucose-6-phosphate into ribulose-5-phosphate are the first steps in the production of
the phenolic molecule (Figure 3.1). Throughout the metabolic process, one can observe
the dispersion of phenolics, which are the most noticeable secondary metabolites in plants
(Lin et al., 2016).
3.2.2 TERPENES
The most well-known terpenes are byproducts of odoriferous plants such as turpentine and
camphor (Figure 3.2). Each and every terpene is composed of a large number of isoprene
45
units, which can be linear, cyclic, saturated, or unsaturated, as well as altered in a variety
of ways (Keller et al., 2005).
FIGURE 3.1 Types of phenolic compounds.
FIGURE 3.2 Types of terpenes.
⏎
⏎
46
3.2.3 ALKALOIDS
About 20% of the known secondary metabolites discovered in plants are alkaloids (Chik
et al., 2013). Initially, Alkaloids are believed to play the role of nitrogen storage in plants.
But various researches show that alkaloids in plants defend against predators and control
growth. Alkaloids are particularly well known for their therapeutic uses as anesthetics,
cardioprotective, and anti-inflammatory drugs (Figure 3.3). Among the well-known
alkaloids used in clinical settings are nicotine, ephedrine, strychnine, quinine, and quinine
(Kurek, 2019).
FIGURE 3.3 Types of alkaloids.
⏎
3.3 HISTORY OF NATURAL PRODUCTS
The history of drug discovery began in 1803, with the separation of morphine from Papaver
somniferum, the first plant-derived drug (Krishnamurti and Rao, 2016). A total of 70,000
herbal plants, mostly in Asian pharmaceuticals, have been employed for medical reasons.
Overall 20% of plant species in India are utilized medicinally . These healing plants contain
a vast storehouse of ethnobotanical chemicals that are used in numerous medicine drug
carriers today.
Since ancient times, natural products originating from plants have been employed
in both traditional and modern medicines for the treatment of a wide range of diseases,
such as Cancer, Malaria, Cardiovascular, Alzheimer, etc. (Balunas and Kinghorn, 2005;
et al., 2016; Wangchuk, 2018). Cupressus and Commiphora species were utilized
Yuan
47
by Mesopotamians as far back as 2600 BC and are still employed for this purpose to treat
inammation, coughs, and colds. Plant-derived crude drugs or crude extracts contain a
variety of complex compounds that possess therapeutic properties. Since 1632, cinchona
tree bark extract has been used to treat malaria; nevertheless, it was not until 1820 that
the pure antimalarial drug quinine became the rst chemical employed in contemporary
medicine to treat an infectious disease (Achan et al., 2011). Furthermore, the synthetic
pharmaceutical industry was initiated with the manufacturing of aspirin serving as a manmade equivalent of salicylic acid, which was initially isolated from a willow tree in 1897
(Landau, 2010). Today, natural products derived from plants continue to be an important
source of medicines and drugs. The World Health Organization estimates that at least 25%
of medicines recommended in afuent nations come from organic sources such as plants,
animals, and microbes (World Health Organization, 2013). Additionally, the “wonder
drug” theories that claim a single medication can treat all diseases and all people must be
revised. With many molecules remaining to be found, nature already provides possibilities
for medication research. Nature has already produced a number of medications, including
Taxol (Taxus brevifolia) and antimalarial medications like quinine (Cinchona spp.) and
Artemisinin (Artemisia annua) (Thomford et al., 2018). Over a long period of time, humans
have understood that plants are a good source of medicine (Lietava, 1992).
Natural products derived from plants have been used in traditional medicine for
thousands of years. Ancient healers and shamans used medicinal plants to treat a variety of
ailments and diseases. For example, Hippocrates (460–370 BC), the “Father of Medicine,”
prescribed plants such as willow bark for pain relief and cinchona bark for the treatment
of malaria (Smulyan, 2018). In the 19th century, the eld of natural product chemistry
was established, as chemists began to isolate and identify active compounds from
medicinal plants. Aspirin, for example, was rst isolated from willow bark in 1829 by
Henri Leroux, and a synthetic form of it was developed by Felix Hoffmann in 1897. Other
notable natural products isolated from plants include caffeine (from coffee beans), quinine
(from cinchona bark), and ephedrine (from the ephedra plant) (Montinari et al., 2019).
The initial successful therapy for malaria was the naturally occurring chemical quinine. In
underdeveloped nations, this is still a common therapy and was the norm up until the 1940s
(Reyburn et al., 2009). The only known naturally occurring source of quinine, the cinchona
tree, was originally discovered to have medicinal properties by the Quechua Indians of
Peru and Bolivia. In the 20th century, advances in chemistry and biotechnology enabled
the synthesis of complex natural molecules such as paclitaxel (from the yew tree) and
artemisinin (from sweet wormwood). These compounds are now used to treat cancer and
malaria, respectively (Desmarchelier, 2010).
3.4 DRUG DISCOVERY FROM NATURAL PRODUCTS
Friedrich Wilhelm Sertürner achieved the isolation of morphine, the first naturally derived
substance to be made commercially available for medicinal purposes. Bayer in 1899 launched
the first semisynthetic, pure drug based on the natural compound salicin was derived from
48
the plant Salix alba. As an outcome of this early drugs including cocaine, codeine, digitoxin,
quinine, and pilocarpine were isolated. Several other recent plant-derived compounds
underwent research and development and were marketed as medicine such as Artemisinin
from the traditional Chinese plant Artemisia annua to fight drug-resistant malaria, Silymarin
from the seeds of Silybum marianum to treat liver conditions, Paclitaxel from T axus br evifolia
to treat lung, ovarian, and breast cancer, and more (Newman et al., 2000).
Natural ingredients are still used as sources of novel structures (Newman and Cragg,
2012). Close to 50% of medications licensed in the last 30 years have been developed
directly or indirectly from natural ingredients. Among the 175 small molecules that have
been used to treat cancer since the 1940s, 85 are either natural products themselves or
directly derived from them.
3.5 DRUGS DERIVED FROM THE PLANTS
A significant range of drugs has been discovered from plant sources that have historically
been used in ethnomedicine or ethnobotany (Table 3.1). In contrast, others have been
discovered after being randomly tested on animals or after being examined for biological
activity in vitro or in vitro (Krause and Tobin, 2013).
3.6 CONCLUSIONS
With advancement of science and technology human being developed the synthetic
compounds, still effective alternative of many natural products are yet to discover. To
meet the high demand and reduce the cost of production naturally occurring compound
are always a best solution. With the advancement of techno logy, our way of life is moving
more away from nature. We cannot escape nature despite the fact that we are a part of it.
Plant-based natural compounds are generally safe, environmentally friendly , and abundant
in nature, making them good candidate for drug discovery and development. They also
have no adverse side effects. Several herbs have been used traditionally to cure ailments
associated with particular seasons.
These herbal medications are now considered as a sign of safety as opposed to synthetic
drugs, which are thought to be harmful to both humans and the environment. The mindless
reliance on synthetics has ended, though, and people are going back to natural products
in the hopes of nding safety and security. Due to the industrial revolution, secondary
metabolites become backbone of the food industries, pharma industries, perfume industries, etc. It is time to promote them worldwide. We are going further away from nature as
our way of life becomes more technologically advanced. But at the same time it is true, that
various plants have long been valued for their ability to treat illness, and they remain one of
the greatest and most efcient sources used to create novel natural-derived chemicals that
have the potential to become top-tier medicines. That is why it is very important to save
plants and natural products derived from them and use them properly.
TABLE 3.1 Details of Plant-Based Drugs Derived from the Different Plant Species
Plant Species Family Class Plant‑based Drugs Medicinal Properties
Aesculus hippocastanum L.
Agrimonias eupatoria
Anabasis aphylla L.
Andrographis paniculata (Burm.f.) Nees
Anisodus tanguticus (Maxim.) Pascher
Areca catechu L.
Artemisia maritime L.
Atropa belladonna L.
Berberis vulgaris L.
Betula alba L.
Brassica
Camellia
Camptotheca acuminata Decne
Carica papaya L.
Cassia angustifolia M Vahl
Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don
Centella asiatica (L.) Urb.
Cephaelis ipecacuanha (Brot.) A. Rich.
Chondodendron tomentosum
Cinchona ledgeriana (Howard) Bern.
Moens ex Trimen
Cinnamomum camphora (L.) J. Presl
Cissampelos pareira L.
Colchicum autumnale L.
Coptis japonica (Thunb.) Makino Ranunculaceae
Corydalis ambigua Cham. & Schltdl.
nigra (L.) K. Koch
sinensis (L.) Kuntze
Sapindaceae Terpene Aescin Anti-inflammatory
Rosaceae Carboxylic ester Agrimophol Anthelmintic
Amaranthaceae Alkaloids Anabesine Skeletal muscle relaxant
Acanthaceae Terpene Andrographolide, Neoandrographolide Baccillary dysentery
Solanaceae Alkaloids Anisodamine, Anisodine Anticholinergic
Arecaceae Alkaloids Arecoline Anthelmintic
Asteraceae Santonin Ascaricide
Solanaceae Alkaloids Atropine Anticholinergic,
Berberidaceae Alkaloids Berberine Bacillary dysentery
Betulaceae Terpene Betulinicacid Anticancer
Brassicaceae Allylisothiocyanate Rubefacient
Theaceae Alkaloids Caffeine CNS stimulant
Nyssaceae Alkaloids Camptothecin, Irinotecan, T opotecan Anticancer
Caricaceae Alkaloids Chymopapain, Danthron Papain, Sennosides A, B Proteolytic, mucolytic,
Caesalpinaceae Alkaloids Senna Laxative
Apocynaceae Alkaloids Vinblastine, Vinblastine, V asicine, Vinorelbine,
Apiaceae Terpene Asiaticoside Vulnerary
Rubiaceae Alkaloids Emetine Amoebicide, emetic
Menispermaceae Alkaloids Tubocurarine Skeletal muscle relaxant
Rubiaceae Alkaloids Quinidine, Quinine Antimalarial, antipyretic,
Lauraceae Terpene Camphor Rubefacient
Menispermaceae Alkaloids Cissampeline Skeletal muscle relaxant
Colchicaceae Alkaloids Demecolcine, Colchicine, Antitumoragent, anti-gout
Alkaloids Palmatine Antipyretic, detoxicant
Papaveraceae Alkaloids Tetrahydropalmatine Analgesic, sedative,
⏎
Vindesine, Vinflunine
painkiller
laxative
Anticancer, antileukemic
agent, cerebral stimulant
antiarrhythmic
traquillizer
49
TABLE 3.1
Plant Species Family Class Plant‑based Drugs Medicinal Properties
Curcuma longa L. Zingiberaceae
Datura stramonium L.
Digitalis lanata Ehrh.
Digitalis purpurea L.
Erythroxylum coca Lam.
Ephedra sinica Stapf
Erythroxylum coca Lam.
Fraxinus rhynchophylla Hance
Gaultheria procumbens L.
Glaucium flavum Crantz
Glycyrrhiza glabra L. Fabaceae
Gossypium sp.
Hemsleya amabilis Diels
Hydrastis canadensis L.
Hyoscyamus niger L.
Larrea divaricata Cav.
Lobelia inflata L.
Lycoris squamigera Maxim.
Maclura pomifera (Raf.) C.K. Schneid
Mentha viridis (L.) L.
Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC.
Nicotiana tabacum L.
Nothapodytes foetida (Wight) Sleumer
Ocotea glaziovii Mez
Perilla frutescens L. Britton var. Crispa
(Continued)
Terpene Curcumin Choleretic
Solanaceae Alkaloids Scopolamine Sedative
Plantaginaceae Steroids Lanatosides, Deslanoside, Acetyldigoxin Cardiotonic glycosides
Plantaginaceae Steroids Gitalin, Digoxin, Digitalin, Digitoxin Cardiotonic
Erythroxylaceae Alkaloids Cocaine Anti-gout
Ephedraceae Alkaloids Ephedrine, Pseudoephredrine Sympathomimetic,
antihistamine
Erythroxylaceae Alkaloids Cocaine Local anaesthetic
Oleaceae Phenolic acid Aesculetin Anti-dysentery
Ericaceae Alkaloids Methylsalicylate Rubefacient
Papaveraceae Alkaloids Glaucine Antitussive
Terpene Glycyrrhizin Sweetener, Addison’ s
disease
Malvaceae Polyphenol Gossypol Male contraceptive
Cucurbitaceae Terpene Hemsleyadin Bacillary dysentery
Ranunculaceae Alkaloids Hydrastine Hemostatic, astringent
Solanaceae Alkaloids Hyoscyamine Anticholinergic
Zygophyllaceae Phenolic acid Nordihydroguaiaretic acid Antioxidant
Campanulaceae Alkaloids α-Lobeline Smoking deterrant,
respiratory stimulant
Amaryllidaceae Alkaloids Alkaloids Cholinesterase inhibitor
Moraceae Phenolic acid Phenolic acid Anticancer
Lamiaceae Terpene Terpene Rubefacient
Fabaceae Phenolic acid Phenolic acid Anti-parkinsonism
Solanaceae Alkaloids Nicotine Insecticide
Stemonuraceae Alkaloids Camptothecin Anticancer
Lauraceae Alkaloids Glasiovine Antidepressant
Lamiaceae Terpenes
9-OH-isoegomaketone [(2E)-1-(3-furanyl)
-4-OH-4-Me-2-penten-1-one
50
TABLE 3.1
Plant Species Family Class Plant‑based Drugs Medicinal Properties
Papaver somniferum L.
Pausinystalia yohimba Pierre ex Beille
Physostigma venenosum Balf.
Pilocarpus jaborandi Holmes Rutaceae
Potentilla fragarioides Cham. & Schltdl.
Rauvolfia canescens L.
Salix alba L.
Sanguinaria canadensis L.
Silybum marianum (L.)
Simarouba glauca DC.
Sophora pachycarpa C.A. Mey
Stephania sinica Diels Menispermaceae
Stephania tetrandra S. Moore Menispermaceae
Strophanthus gratus (Wall. & Hook.) Baill.
Strychnos nux-vomica
Strychnos toxifera R. H. Schomb. ex Lindl.
Taxus brevifolia Nutt.
Theobroma cacao L.
Urginea maritima (Thunb.) Baker
Valeriana officinalis L.
Veratrum album L.
Vanilla planifolia Jacks. Ex Andrews
References: Balandrin
(Continued)
et al. (1993); Reddy (2017)
Papaveraceae Alkaloids Papavarine, Noscapine, Codeine, Morphine Analgesic, antitussive,
smooth muscle relaxant
Rubiaceae Alkaloids Yohimbine Aphrodisiac
Fabaceae
Rosaceae Phenolic acid (+)-Catechin Haemostatic
Apocynaceae Alkaloids Deserpidine Antihypertensive,
Salicaceae Terpene Salicin Analgesic
Papaveraceae Alkaloids Sanguinarine Dental plaque inhibitor
Asteraceae Phenolic acid Silymarin Antihepatotoxic
Simaroubaceae Terpene Glaucarubin Amoebicide
Fabaceae Alkaloids Pachycarpine Oxytocic
Apocynaceae Alkaloids Ouabain Cardiotonic
Loganiaceae Alkaloids Strychnine CNS stimulant
Loganiaceae Alkaloids Curare, D-tubocurarine Muscle relaxant
Taxaceae Alkaloid Taxol Antitumor agent
Malvaceae Alkaloids Theobromine Diuretic, vasodilator
Asparagaceae Steroid/Alkaloids Scillarin A Cardiotonic
Caprifoliaceae Terpene Valapotriates Sedative
Melanthiaceae Alkaloids Protoveratrines A, B Antihypertensives
Orchidaceae Phenolic acid Vanillin Antioxidant, antimutagenic
Alkaloid Physostigmine Cholinesterase inhibitor
Alkaloid Pilocarpine Parasympathomimetic
(Cholinergic)
tranquillizer
Alkaloids Rotundine Analagesic, sedative,
traquillizer
Alkaloids Tetrandrine Antihypertensive
51
52
KEYWORDS
• herbal medicine
• natural products
• phenolic compounds
• natural-derived chemicals
• secondary metabolites
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