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Файл:Иностранный язык в профессиональной деятельности (английский язык)
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describe описываем
discuss обсуждаем
emphasize подчеркиваем
examine изучаем
extend расширяем
introduce вводим
present представляем
propose предлагаем
review рассматриваем
show показываем
This study/paper/investigation Настоящее исследование/статья/
работа
considers рассматривает
describes описывает
examines изучает
extends расширяет
includes включает
presents представляет
reports сообщает о
reviews рассматривает
METHOD
was/were evaluated / assessed был/и оценен/ы
was/were formulated / defined был/и сформулирован/ы
was/were modelled был/и смоделирован/ы
was/were performed / implemented был/и осуществлен/ы
was/were studied /investigated был/и изучен/ы
was/were used / applied был/и использован/ы
RESULTS
сaused/ resulted in/ led to вызвал, привел к
had no effect не имел влияния/воздействия
it was noted/observed that… было замечено/ наблюдался/ись,
что...
occurred/ took place/ happened произошел
produced/ generated произвел
was identified был выявлен
was/were achieved/ accomplished был/и достигнут/ы
was/were found/ discovered был/и обнаружен/ы
was/were obtained был/и получен/ы
was/were unaffected by не был/и затронут/ы
accurate/ precise /exact точный
better лучший
consistent последовательный
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effective эффективный
improved улучшенный, усовершенствован-
ный
new / novel новый
significant / considerable значительный
simple простой
suitable / proper/ appropriate подходящий
superior/ predominant/ overwhelming превосходящий
achieve / accomplish достигать
allow / enable позволять
demonstrate/ show показывать, демонстрировать
ensure обеспечивать
guarantee гарантировать
obtain получать
validate обосновывать, подтверждать
the evidence/these results… доказательства/ результаты
indicate(s) that указывают/ет, что
mean(s) that означают/ет, что
suggest(s) that предполагают/ет, что
It is thought that считается, что
We conclude that Мы пришли к выводу, что
We suggest that Мы предлагаем
DISCUSSION
applicability область применения
can be applied может применяться
can be used/ utilized может использоваться
make it possible to делать возможным
potential use потенциальное использование
relevant for/in значимый, актуальный для
a preliminary attempt предварительная попытка
not significant незначительный
slightly/ somewhat немного
future directions перспективы
future work дальнейшая работа
Task 3.22 Now you will bring together and use all the information in this
unit. You will write the Abstract for your target article according to the model
using the grammar and vocabulary you have learned, so make sure you have
both the model and the vocabulary in front of you. You should try to have your
own abstract checked by a native speaker of English if possible, to make sure
that you are using the vocabulary correctly.
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WRITING THE INTRODUCTION
Task 3.23 Read the text about how to write the Introduction and discuss
it in groups:
Vocabulary
Preliminaries – предварительная информация
Provisional title – рабочее название
Outline of the paper – схематический план статьи
Inconsistencies – противоречия, несоответствия
Sidelines – ответвления, смежные области
Rationale – обоснование
Capstone – кульминация
Now that we have the preliminaries out of the way, we come to the paper
itself. Some experienced writers prepare their title and Abstract after the paper
is written, even though by placement these elements come first. You should,
however, have in mind (if not on paper or in the computer) a provisional title
and an outline of the paper you propose to write. You should also consider
the level of the audience you are writing for, so that you will have a basis for
determining which terms and procedures need definition or description and
which do not. If you do not have a clear purpose in mind, you might go writing
off in six directions at once.
It is a wise policy to begin writing the paper while the work is still in
progress. This makes the writing easier because everything is fresh in your mind.
Furthermore, the writing process itself is likely to point to inconsistencies in
the results or perhaps to suggest interesting sidelines that might be followed. If
you have coauthors, it is wise to write up the work while they are still available
for consultation.
The first section of the text proper should, of course, be the Introduction.
The purpose of the Introduction should be to supply sufficient background
information to allow the reader to understand and evaluate the results of the
present study without needing to refer to previous publications on the topic. The
Introduction should also provide the rationale for the present study. Above all,
you should state briefly and clearly your purpose in writing the paper. Choose
references carefully to provide the most important background information.
Much of the Introduction should be written in present tense, because you will
be referring primarily to your problem and the established knowledge relating
to it at the start of your work.
73
Suggested rules for a good Introduction are as follows:
1) The Introduction should present first, with all possible clarity, the nature
and scope of the problem investigated.
2) It should briefly review the pertinent literature to orient the reader.
3) It should state the method of the investigation. If deemed necessary, the
reasons for the choice of a particular method should be stated.
4) It should state the principal results of the investigation.
5) It should state the principal conclusions suggested by the results.
Do not keep the reader in suspense; let the reader follow the development
of evidence. An O. Henry surprise ending might make good literature, but it
hardly fits the mold of the scientific method.
To expand on that last point: Many authors, especially beginning authors,
make the mistake of holding back their more important findings until late in
the paper. In extreme cases, authors have sometimes omitted important findings from the Abstract, presumably in the hope of building suspense while
proceeding to a well-concealed, dramatic climax. Basically, the problem with
the surprise ending is that the readers become bored and stop reading long
before they get to the punch line. ‘Reading a scientific article isn’t the same as
reading a detective story. We want to know from the start that the butler did it.’
The first three rules for a good Introduction need little expansion and
are usually well accepted by most scientist-writers, even beginning ones. It
is important to keep in mind, however, that the purpose of the Introduction
is to introduce (the paper). Thus, the first rule (definition of the problem) is
the cardinal one. And, obviously, if the problem is not stated in a reasonable,
understandable way, readers will have no interest in your solution. Even if the
reader labours though your paper, which is unlikely if you haven’t presented
the problem in a meaningful way, they will be unimpressed with the brilliance
of your solution. In a sense, a scientific paper is like other types of journalism.
In the Introduction you should have a ‘hook’ to gain the reader’s attention.
Why did you choose that subject, and why is it important?
The second and third rules relate to the first. The literature review and
choice of method should be presented in such a way that the reader will
understand what the problem was and how you tried to resolve it.
These three rules then lead naturally to the fourth and fifth, the statement
of principal results and conclusions, which should be the capstone of the
Introduction.
1
Ratnoff O.D. 1981. How to read a paper // Coping with the biomedical literature. New
York : Praeger, 1981. P. 95–101.
1
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Some exceptions
In some research areas and journals, scientific papers typically follow only
the first three rules. Thus, when looking at papers in your target journal as
models, see whether their Introductions state the results and conclusions. If
they do not, you probably should not do so in your Introduction.
Also, in some fields, the Introduction commonly has a ‘funnel’ shape,
moving from broad and general to narrow and specific. For example, in the
Introduction you may begin with the information on the importance of the
overall topic being addressed, next summarize knowledge about an aspect of
the topic, then identify an unresolved question about that aspect, and finally say
how the current research addressed the question. The approach resembles one
you might use when a visitor comes to your lab and you first provide background
information and then show what you have been doing. In essence, the reader
of your paper is visiting your research venue; an Introduction thus structured
can provide a helpful and hospitable welcome.
1
Task 3.24 Decide if the following statements are true or false. Correct the
false ones:
1 The Abstract and the title are usually prepared before the paper is written.
2 You should always consider the level of the audience you are writing for.
3 The Introduction is the first section of the paper.
4 The purpose of the Introduction is to supply sufficient background
information.
5 The Introduction is usually written in the past tense.
6 The literature review is a part of the Introduction.
7 The reader should be kept in suspense, like in a detective story.
8 The Introduction is written to introduce the paper.
9 In the Introduction you should have a ‘hook’ to gain the reader’s attention.
10 In some research areas and journals, scientific papers typically follow
only the first three rules.
11 The information presented in the Introduction should move from narrow
and specific to broad and general.
Task 3.25 The text in the Introduction could be organized around five key
questions. Match the beginnings to the endings of the questions:
1
From Day R.A., Gastel B.. How to Write and Publish a Scientific Paper. P. 56–59.
75
What was I approach the problem?
Why was it expect to know after doing the research?
What was already
What did I investigating?
How did I known about the subject of my research?
important?
Task 3.26 Read five extracts from the Introduction to a research paper.
Which question from the previous exercise is each extract answering? What
do you think is the best order for these extracts?
1
While blogging has become relatively common in media work and public life
(Domingo & Heinonen, 2008; Rettberg, 2008; Rosenburg, 2009), a new variation
on it – microblogging – has emerged in the form of Twitter. This social media
service features short, instant bursts of information shared with one’s followers,
in a system designed for viral distribution. Twitter became famous as a primary
means of disseminating updates, from journalists and amateurs alike, during major
events such as the 2008 U.S. presidential election (Huberman et al., 2008), the US
Airways plane crash on the Hudson River (Kawk et al., 2010), the 2009 Iranian
election (Grossman, 2009), and in the 2011 Egyptian revolution (Crovitz, 2011).
Even more, journalists are increasingly turning to Twitter as a form of engaging
with audiences and sources, tracking the latest buzz on their beats, and promoting
their work (Ahmad, 2010; Fahri, 2009; Hermida, 2010a).
2
Thus, the question becomes, how are journalists using microblogging? What
content are they sharing on Twitter, and with what frequency? What distinctive
patterns and features are emerging—and what might they suggest about changes
to journalistic conventions?
3
We content-analyzed the ‘tweets’, or discrete postings, of journalists who were
identified as the most popular (by number of followers) on Twitter. The goal was to
determine the extent to which microblogging may be changing journalistic norms
or practices.
4
Hermida (2010a, b) argued that, in light of Twitter, scholars and professionals alike must reconsider the relationship between the audience and journalists,
and that journalism itself has become ‘ambient’—omnipresent, often fragmented,
and a collective effort involving the audience and journalists. Burns (2010, p. 7)
extended Hermida’s definition of ambient journalism, describing it as ‘an emerging
76
analytical framework for journalists’ that presses both professional journalists
and citizen journalists ‘to observe and evaluate their immediate context’ while
emphasizing ‘novel information’. Both Burns (2010) and Hermida (2010a, b)
suggest that scholars do more to understand how journalism and journalists are
being affected by digital modalities such as Twitter.
5
This study takes up these questions. Based on a conceptual framework of
professional normative constructs built around the requirements of democracy,
this study builds upon Singer’s (2005) blog normalizing hypothesis by considering it in the context of a different but related medium. We content-analyzed the
‘tweets’, or discrete postings, of journalists who were identified as the most popular
(by number of followers) on Twitter. The goal was to determine the extent to which
microblogging may be changing journalistic norms or practices.
Task 3.27 Study the following information about sentence connection:
One of the most common errors in writing is failing to connect one sentence
or idea to the next. Every time you end a sentence, your reader has no idea what
the next sentence is going to do or say. If you don’t use appropriate connectors,
you create a gap in the text which will cause problems. One of your tasks as a
writer is to make sure that gap is closed, so that your reader is carried carefully
from one piece of information to the next.
1) One way to connect sentences is overlapping, meaning to repeat
something from the previous sentence. Sometimes overlapping is combined
with paraphrasing:
a) Web logs (blogs), a form of self-publishing on the web, have drawn much
interest in the last few years. Part of the interest arises from the suggestion that
citizen journalism – blogs being one form used for it – gives the people a voice
and therefore power;
b) The impact of the Internet and other new information- and communication
technologies on the profession of journalism should not be underestimated. The
Internet is changing the profession of journalism in at least three ways;
c) The literature on multimedia is expanding rapidly, and it is clear that it
means many different things to different people. Research into what convergence
and multimedia mean for journalism and the work of journalists is proliferating;
d) This dynamic landscape of continuous and diversified witnessing and reporting does not represent a crisis of journalism, but rather, an explosion of it. In fact,
the profession seems to be more alive than ever and going through a multiplication
of both forms and content at amazing speed.
77
2) Another way is to use a pronoun (it, they) or pro-form (this method,
these considerations, etc.) to glue the sentences together:
a) The Internet is changing the profession of journalism in at least three ways:
it has the potential to make the journalist as an intermediary force in democracy
superfluous; it offers the media professional a vast array of resources and sheer
endless technological possibilities to work with; and it creates its own type of journalism on the Net: so-called digital or rather: online journalism;
b) In this paper I contextualize multimedia in journalism, explore its meaning
for contemporary newsrooms and media organizations, and its current (emerging)
practices in Europe and the United States. As the basis for these considerations, I
have used the professional and scholarly literature on convergence and multimedia
in journalism in Europe and the United States in particular;
c) We are witnessing the emergence of new tools and practices, phenomena
that are yielding both a flurry of new ways to produce information and a redefinition of the place of professional journalism in this new information system. While
there is widespread fear about the damaging consequences of these trends for the
quality of journalism and the professional survival of journalists, we believe that
current developments may, in fact, be paving the path toward better journalism
and more independent journalists.
3) The third way is not to finish the sentence at all, but to join it to the
next sentence with a semicolon or a relative clause (a ‘which’ clause). Joining
sentences with a semicolon works well when two sentences are very closely
related and one of them is quite short:
a) This is not to say that there is little or no journalism education literature; on
the contrary, academic bookshelves and peer-reviewed journals feature the work
of numerous writers on the subject.
b) Regarding industry training, the literature does not offer many answers;
overviews of education and training initiatives in particular countries tend to mention or list these kinds of training programs initiated and paid for by news media
organizations themselves.
c) Global in the context of this essay means the lateral links one can identify
across (real and perceived) national and cultural boundaries, which get particular
meanings in situated contexts.
4) The fourth way is to use a signaling sentence connector to indicate the
relationship between one sentence and the next, or one part of a sentence and
the next. You know how useful sentence connectors are from your reading;
78
when you see a word like therefore or however, you are able to process the next
piece of information in the sentence correctly even if you don’t understand
every word. This is because the sentence connector signals the function of the
information in the sentence. The opposite is also true: when the writer does
not signal the function of the information with a connector, it is harder for the
reader to process the information.
Here are some examples of signaling language arranged according to their
function:
CAUSE
due to (the fact that)
on account of (the fact that)
in view of (the fact that)
owing to (only negative)
thanks to (only positive)
as
because (of)
since
as a result of
as a consequence of
All these connectors can be used at the start of a sentence, even because.
Study the examples of how these connectors could be used:
a) In the context of the Internet, a definition must have a technological
dimension, since the practice of journalism online is in its essence hardly different
from any kind of other journalism.
b) Because of the trends described above, the primacy of political journalism
might lose ground and the journalists’ activity, as an inevitable intermediary between the citizen and the outside world, will assume a more voluntaristic character.
RESULT
therefore
consequently
hence
as a result (of which)
which is why
so
thus
Note:
Do not start sentences with so to communicate a result; it’s too informal.
Study the examples of how these connectors could be used:
a) In this paper, I therefore intend to conceptually synthesize some of the
key literature and findings from journalism education studies in different parts of
the world as these sheds light on common challenges and initiatives.
b) These publications suggest that although media systems and journalistic
cultures may differ widely, the changes and challenges facing journalism education
79
around the world are largely similar, and thus would benefit from a ‘global’ approach.
CONTRAST / DIFFERENCE
however
whereas
but
on the other hand
while
by contrast
Note:
On the contrary and conversely don’t fit into this category because they
don’t only communicate difference; they communicate the fact that ‘exactly
the opposite is true’.
Be careful when you use while; it is also often used to mean ‘at that/the same
time’, so if there’s any possibility of confusion, choose a different connector.
Study the examples of how these connectors could be used:
a) An editorial board or newsroom is an independent working unit within a
media organization – whereas a media organization can be referred to on two levels
as a broadcast, print, cable or online media outlet and as a media organization
incorporating more than one media outlet.
b) This is not to say that the end of mediated communication is near, but it
only shows that due to new technology the exclusive hold of journalists on the
gatekeeping function1 to private households comes to an end.
UNEXPECTEDNESS
(a) Although
Even though
Though
(b) Despite
In spite of
Regardless of
Notwithstanding
(c) Nevertheless
However
Nonetheless
Even so
There are other connectors with the same meaning, such as still and
anyway, but they are more informal.
Study the examples of how these connectors could be used:
a) Although convergence as it is introduced in this paper – in the context of
journalism on the Internet – has a powerful deterministic component in terms of
(the uses and impact of) technology, it must be stressed here that technology in itself
cannot be seen as the determining factor in defining what professional convergence
and overall change in journalism means.
b) Nevertheless, the situation brings threats as well.
1
Gatekeeping – теория привратника, система фильтрации сообщений в массовой
коммуникации (Курт Левин,1943).
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