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Occasionally, titles are too short and, therefore, not helpful to the potential
reader. Much more often, titles are too long. Ironically, long titles are often
less meaningful than short ones. Without question, most excessively long titles
contain ‘waste’ words. Often, these waste words appear right at the start of the
title, words such as ‘Studies on’, ‘Investigations on’, and ‘Observations on’.
And opening ‘A’, ‘An’, or ‘The’ is also a ‘waste’ word. Certainly, such words
are useless for indexing purposes.
The web portal Research Trends conducted a case study of scholarly papers
published in Cell between 2006 and 2010, and their citations within the same
window. Overall, there was no direct correlation between title length (measured
in number of characters) and total citations. However, comparing the citation
rates of articles of different lengths revealed that papers with titles between 31
and 40 characters were cited the most. There were also differences in average
number of citations per paper depending on the punctuation used in the titles:
for instance, the few papers with question marks in their titles were clearly cited
less, but titles containing a comma or colon were cited more. There were no
papers with a semicolon in their title, and only one (uncited) paper with an
exclamation mark in its title. It is interesting to note that the ten most cited
papers in Research Trends case study did not contain any punctuation at all
in their titles.
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Let us analyze a sample title: ‘Twittering the news’. Is it a good title? In
form it is; it is short and carries no excess baggage (waste words). However,
most titles that are too short are too short because they are general rather than
specific. Therefore, they are essentially meaningless.
A good idea is to use titles that are concise while conveying the most interesting
and surprising new results from the study.
And, finally, titles should almost never contain abbreviations, proprietary
(rather than generic) names, jargon, and the like.
Task 3.8 Summarize the ideas presented in the text above. Retell the text
to your partner.
Task 3.9 Think about a study you have done recently. Write one or two
sentences presenting the key results. Use them to write a title for a paper on
your work.
1
Hugget S. Heading for success: or how not to title your paper // Research Trends. 2011.
Sept. URL: https://www.researchtrends.com/issue24-september-2011/heading-for-success-orhow-not-to-title-your-paper/ (access date: 13.10.2016).
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WRITING THE ABSTRACT
Task 3.10 Have you ever written an abstract to your research paper? What
recommendations can you give for writing a good abstract? Share your ideas
with the class.
Task 3.11 Now read the text and compare it with your ideas and answers.
Vocabulary
principal objectives – основные цели
scope of the investigation – область исследования
informative abstract – информативная аннотация
descriptive abstract – описательная аннотация
The structure and content of the Abstract have changed in recent decades.
The Internet has influenced the way that science research is communicated
and the way that scientists access published research. Abstract databases allow
scientists to search and scan the scientific literature and then decide which
research articles they want to read in detail. Some readers simply want to
know what is going on in their research area and may not be interested in the
details; others may want to know details but are only interested in research
articles which are directly relevant to their own research. However, if readers
are going to actually read your research article, the Abstract now needs to
persuade them to obtain a copy of it, not just encourage them to keep reading
a paper they have already accessed.
Abstracts compete for attention in on-line databases. Many more people
will read the title than the Abstract, and many more will read the Abstract than
the whole paper. This means that however ‘good’ and well written the Abstract
is, it needs to have independent validity. It should make sense as a standalone,
self-contained description of the research article, and readers should be able
to understand the key points and results of the research even if they never see
the whole article. The Abstract, in this sense, is a representation of the research
article. It should provide a brief summary of each of the main sections of the
paper: Introduction, Materials and Methods, Results, and Discussion. Young
researchers are sometimes recommended to take the most important sentences
from each of the sections of the paper and put them in order.
The Abstract should not exceed the length specified by the journal
(commonly, 250 words). Typically, the Abstract should be typed as a single
paragraph.
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The Abstract should (1) state the principal objectives and scope of the
investigation, (2) describe the methods employed, (3) summarize the results,
and (4) state the principal conclusions.
The Abstract should never give any information or conclusion that is
not stated in the paper. References to the literature must not be cited in the
Abstract. Likewise, the Abstract should not include or refer to tables or figures.
Types of Abstracts
The above rules apply to the abstracts that are called Informative Abstract.
It is designed to condense the paper. It briefly states the problem, the method
used to study the problem, and the principal data and conclusions. Often, the
abstract supplants the need for reading the full paper; without such abstracts,
scientists would not be able to keep up in active areas of research. This is the
type of abstract that precedes the body of the paper, thus serving as a ‘heading’
in most journals. Most writers now provide the informative abstracts of their
work.
Desсriptive abstract is designed to indicate the subjects dealt with in a
paper, so the reader can decide whether to read the entire document. In many
ways, the descriptive abstract is like a table of contents in paragraph form.
Unlike reading an informative abstract, reading a descriptive abstract cannot
substitute for reading the document because it does not capture the content of
the piece. Nor does a descriptive abstract fulfill the other main goals of abstracts
as informative abstracts do. This type of abstract cannot serve as a substitute
for the full paper. Thus, descriptive abstracts should not be used as ‘heading’
abstracts in research papers, but they may be used in other types of publications
(review papers, conference reports, the government report literature, etc).
Such descriptive abstracts are often used as reference by librarians. However,
in research papers descriptive abstracts are less and less common.
Task 3.12 In pairs, discuss the following questions:
1 What is the purpose of an abstract?
2 How can an abstract help a researcher choose which papers to read?
3 What information does the abstract usually include?
4 Why do some people think a good abstract is even more important in the
internet age than it was before?
5 What types of abstracts can you name?
Task 3.13 Read the two abstracts below and decide which of them is (a)
informative; (b) descriptive
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1. In this paper the social and cultural context of multimedia in journalism, its
meaning for contemporary newsrooms and media organizations, and its current
(emerging) practices in Europe and the United States are analyzed. The goal: to
answer the question in what ways ‘multimedia’ impacts upon the practice and selfperception of journalists, and how this process in turn shapes and influences the
emergence of a professional identity of multimedia journalism. This paper offers
an analysis of the professional and academic literature in Europe and the United
States, using the concept of media logic as a theoretical framework.
2. This study examines how mainstream journalists who microblog negotiate their professional norms and practices in a new media format that directly
challenges them. Through a content analysis of more than 22,000 of their tweets
(postings) on the microblog platform Twitter, this study reveals that the journalists more freely express opinions, a common microblogging practice but one which
contests the journalistic norm of objectivity (impartiality and nonpartisanship). To
a lesser extent, the journalists also adopted two other norm-related microblogging
features: providing accountability and transparency regarding how they conduct
their work and sharing user-generated content with their followers. The journalists
working for national newspapers, national television news divisions, and cable news
networks were less inclined in their tweets than their counterparts working for less
‘elite’ news outlets to relinquish their gatekeeping role by sharing their stage with
other news gatherers and commentators, or to provide accountability and transparency by providing information about their jobs, engaging in discussions with
other tweeters, writing about their personal lives, or linking to external websites.
Task 3.14 Read the following extracts from an abstract. Match a section
(1-4) to the part of the abstract they were taken from (A-D):
1 Introduction ______
2 Method______
3 Results ______
4 Discussion _____
A
This paper examines the new forms of audience participation in journalism
with regard to their capability in achieving the goals of public journalism.
B
Identifying the higher goal of public journalism as engaging the people as
citizens and helping public deliberation, I argue that the new forms of audience
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participation could further these goals only by infusing the value from and learning
the techniques of public journalism.
C
The concept of community, of public deliberation, past research on the Internet,
and data obtained from my field study is drawn upon.
D
A typology of five models of audience connections is proposed: (1) traditional
journalism, (2) public journalism, (3) interactive journalism, (4) participatory
journalism, and (5) citizen journalism.
Task 3.15 In pairs, decide on the best order of the extracts in the abstract.
Give reasons for your answer.
Task 3.16 Read the text about how to write a good abstract and answer
the questions:
1. How many paragraphs does an abstract have?
2. Is the reviewer likely to judge your paper after reading only the abstract
or the whole paper?
3. Why is it important for a scientist to learn how to write a good abstract?
Economy of Words
Vocabulary
attention span – продолжительность концентрации внимания
harbinger of woes – предвестник бед
abstruse, verbose constructions – невразумительные, многословные
конструкции
precede [prɪˈsiːd] предшествовать, превосходить, предпосылать
attention span – охват, объём внимания
judgement (judgment) – суждение, мнение, взгляд, усмотрение, ре-
шение суда, приговор
preliminary – предварительный, подготовительный
Today, most scientific journals print a heading Abstract with each paper. It
generally is printed (and should be submitted) as a single paragraph. Because
the Abstract precedes the paper itself, and because the editors and reviewers like
a bit of orientation, the Abstract is almost always the first part of the manuscript
read during the review process. Therefore, it is of fundamental importance
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that the Abstract be written clearly and simply. If you cannot make a good
impression in your Abstract, your cause may be lost. Very often, the reviewer
may be perilously close to a final judgement of your manuscript after reading
the Abstract alone. This could be because the reviewer has a short attention
span (often the case). However, if by definition the Abstract is simply a very
short version of the whole paper, it is only logical that the reviewer will often
reach a preliminary conclusion, and that conclusion is likely to be the correct
one. Usually, a good Abstract is followed by a good paper; a poor Abstract is
a harbinger of woes to come.
Because a heading Abstract is required by most journals and because a
meeting Abstract is a requirement for participation in a great many national
and international meetings (participation sometimes being determined on
the basis of submitted abstracts), scientists should master the fundamentals
of Abstract preparation.
When writing the Abstract, examine every word carefully. If you can tell
your story in 100 words, do not use 200. Economically and scientifically, it
does not make sense to waste words. The total communication system can afford only so much verbal abuse. Of more importance to you, the use of clear,
significant words will impress the editors and reviewers (not to mention readers), whereas the use of abstruse, verbose constructions might well contribute
to a check in the ‘reject’ box on the review form.
1
Task 3.17 Decide if the following statements are true or false. Correct the
false ones:
1 In scientific journals, an abstract usually follows the paper.
2 The abstract is usually written in one paragraph.
3 Usually, a good abstract is followed by a good paper.
4 Reviewers never read the abstract before the paper.
5 The whole paper is judged by the abstract.
6 The abstract is usually required by only a few journals.
7 It is not very important for a scientist to learn how to write a good abstract.
8 A good abstract should not be shorter than 200 words.
9 The use of clear, significant words will impress the editors, reviewers
and readers.
Task 3.18 Study the following recommendations about using the correct
grammar in your abstract:
1
From Day R.A., Gastel B. How to Write and Publish a Scientific Paper. P. 54–55.
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The use of VERB TENSE is very important in the Abstract because the
strict word limit means that you may need to omit phrases that tell the reader
whose work you are referring to, or what you think about your results. In this
case, careful and accurate use of a verb tense is very important.
The problem of your research is normally expressed in the Present Simple
Tense:
The main problem, however, is…
We examine why these models have difficulty with…
However, this assessment cannot be based solely on…
Although it is known theoretically that…
When you are referring to what the paper itself does or what is actually in
the paper itself, use the Present Simple Tense, for example:
This paper presents a new methodology for…
In this paper we apply…
We consider a novel system for…
When you are referring to your methodology, or what you did during the
research period, it is common to use the Past Simple Tense, for example:
The data obtained from my field study were analyzed…
The results were evaluated using…
The findings were synthesized into ten categories…
Results can be expressed in either the Present Simple or the Past Simple
Tense, for example:
The research suggests that one of the future directions for journalism may be…
This study reveals that…
This trend was found to produce…
The research showed a marked increase in…
Achievements can be expressed in the Present Perfect Tense, as in the
Discussion/Conclusions:
This investigation has revealed that…
We have devised a strategy which allows…
We have demonstrated that this approach is…
and also in the Present Simple Tense:
The framework described here is both simple and universal…
The value of our approach lies in…
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This provides a powerful tool for…
Applications are normally stated in the Present Simple Tense:
This framework can be used to evaluate…
This approach can be applied to…
This demonstrates potential for general applicability…
Task 3.19 The next step is to look at the way this model works in some
real Abstracts. Here are four Abstracts from real research articles. Read them
through, and mark the model components wherever you think you see them.
Abstract 1. Social media research in advertising, communication, marketing,
and public relations, 1997-2000
Drawing upon the social media phenomena in both practical and academic
arenas, this study explored patterns and trends of social media research over the
past fourteen years across four disciplines. Findings exhibit a definite increasing
number of social-media-related studies. This indicates that social media have
gained incremental attention among scholars, who have, in turn, been responding
and keeping pace with the increased usage and impact of this new medium. The
authors suggest that future scholarly endeavors emphasize prospective aspects of
social media, foreseeing applications and technological progress and elaborating
theory.
Abstract 2. Native advertising as a new public relations tactic
Using a pretest and post-test online experiment (N = 105), this study
empirically explored the impact of native advertising sponsorship disclosure
on organization–public relationships (OPR), credibility, brand attitude, and
attitude toward the advertisement. Credibility and brand attitude predicted the
two OPR factors; however, OPR was not affected by participants’ cognizance of ad
sponsorship/disclosure. Brand attitude for obviously sponsored (e.g., ad disclosed)
content decreased slightly. However, the presence or absence of sponsorship did
not significantly influence either credibility or attitudes toward the advertisement
itself. The study also examined perceived information utility.
Abstract 3. Gaps in Advertising and Public Relations Education: Perspectives
of Agency Leaders
Just as the advertising and public relations industries are evolving due to the
development of new technology and communication tools, so are the demands
of education. Through in-depth interviews with 29 executives working in both
advertising and public relations agencies in the U.S., this study identifies the
core skills and competencies needed to have successful careers in this new media
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landscape. While writing and presentation skills remain foundational, employers
also are seeking math and data analysis skills associated with new jobs in social
media listening and analytics. Meanwhile, some advertising executives lack
the skills in issues and crisis management associated with online community
management. Professionals in both disciplines also bemoan the lack of business
literacy among communication majors and support situated learning opportunities
to address these deficiencies.
Abstract 4. Assessing the Impact of Ethics Instruction on Advertising and
Public Relations Graduates
Based on a survey of recent alumni from two different institutions, this study
indicates that media ethics instruction corresponds with ethical awareness and
ethical leadership. Graduates who took media ethics courses were significantly
more likely than those who did not to consider ethical issues in their profession
important. They were more likely to value ethics highly, to be able to identify ethical
issues, and to have discussed unethical practices with professional colleagues. They
were also more likely to view personal and professional ethics as indistinguishable.
This study suggests longer-term effects on ethical attitudes than have previous
studies and reinforces the need for better and more courses in media ethics.
Task 3.20 Now do the same in your target articles.
Task 3.21 Study the following information about the vocabulary used in
writing the Abstract:
You already have most of the information you need to write this section of
your paper. However, because the Abstract needs to be understood by a wider
range of people than the article itself, the Abstract tends to use simpler, more
conventional language where possible. We will therefore look at the most
common vocabulary.
INTRODUCTION
a number of studies ряд исследований
exist(s) существуют(ет)
frequently /often часто
generally / broadly/ conventionally обычно
is a common technique является общепринятым методом
is/are assumed to предполагается
is/are based on основан/ы на
is/are determined by определяется/ются
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is/are influenced by подвержен/ы влиянию
is/are related to связан/ы с
it has been recently shown that недавно было продемонстрировано,
что
an alternative approach альтернативный подход
a need for необходимость в
although хотя
complicated/ complex/ elaborate сложный, трудный
desirable/ intended/ targeted желаемый
difficulty/ issue/ challenge/ problem трудность, проблема
disadvantage/ drawback недостаток
essential/ significant/ critical существенный, важный
however однако
impractical непрактичный
inconvenient неудобный
it should be possible to должна существовать возможность
it is known that известно, что
it is widely accepted that общеизвестно, что
limited / restricted ограничен
not able to / unable to неспособен
occur(s)/ happens/ takes place происходит, имеет место
popular/ widespread/ accepted известный, распространенный
problem/ issue/ challenge/ task проблема, вопрос, задача
produce(s)/ generate(s) производит, порождает
recent research /recent studies недавние исследования
recently недавно, в последнее время
recently developed недавно разработанный
require / demand требовать
time-consuming трудоемкий
unsuccessful / ineffectual/ unsuitable неудачный
in order to для того, чтобы
our approach наш подход
the aim of this study цель данного исследования
to compare (cf. – confer) сравнить
to examine / study/ investigate/research
with the aim of с целью
In this study/paper/investigation we В настоящем исследовании/статье/
address обращаемся к
analyze анализируем
argue утверждаем
compare сравниваем
consider рассматриваем
изучить, исследовать
работе мы
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