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Файл:Иностранный язык в профессиональной деятельности (английский язык)
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The chart is now accepted as an integral tool for journalism. What took
so long?
The Dark Ages (1930 and before)
The modern statistical chart was invented by the Scottish political
economist William Playfair at the end of the 18th Century. In a fit of astonishing
innovation from 1786 to 1801, Playfair made the first known bar chart, line
chart, and pie chart.
Historians believe that Playfair’s development of the statistical chart
was a response to the surge in the availability of economic and demographic
data collected by governments. Suddenly, efficient ways to express all this
information were necessary. The chart filled that need.
Playfair’s data visualizations did not quickly catch on. They were initially
considered childish by serious academics.
The use of statistical graphics did not proliferate in Playfair’s lifetime—he
died in 1823. But by the beginning of the 20th Century, graphical representations
of data were common in textbooks and used by governments, financiers, and
scientists. Both the French and American governments annually published
statistical atlases filled with charts that aimed to explain the world.
Yet charts were nowhere to be seen in the newspaper.
There were lots of statistics in the paper. Journalists wrote about trends in
the bond markets, activity in the commodity markets, and changing birth rates.
Numbers were a big part of the media; they just weren’t visualized.
Given the vast amounts of data in the paper, why the rarity of charts?
There is little academic research on the subject, but the most likely
explanation is a combination of technological hurdles and the public’s
unfamiliarity with statistical graphics.
Making charts in the first half of the 20th Century meant hand drawing
them—with a little help from primitive technology. Chart makers’ main tools
were rulers, graph paper, and compasses1. Journalists did not make charts
without seriously considering whether it was worth the time.
When newspapers did choose to publish a chart, the average person might
not understand it. Though data visualization was common in academia,
government, and science, the average person was not accustomed to interpreting
charts. Charts were still such a rarity in the early part of the 20th Century that
in 1913 there was a ‘parade of statistical graphics’ in New York City.
1
Compass – циркуль.
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The Business Chart Era (1930s-1970s)
July 4, 1933, is arguably the day that data visualization became a permanent
part of mainstream media.
On that day, our analysis suggests that the New York Times published a
stock market line chart for the very first time. A stock market line chart is that
most famous of graphics that shows trends in the performance of an index of
stocks over a given period.
Charts did appear in the Times prior to that day, but inconsistently. Some
days the paper contained no charts at all. But since July 4, 1933, the Times has
published a data visualization almost every Tuesday through Saturday. (The
markets are closed on Saturday and Sunday, so there is no chart the following
day.) We also checked the archives of the LA Times and San Francisco Chronicle,
and neither published a stock market line chart before July 4, 1933. The LA
Times was also already periodically publishing charts.
Even after the Times began regularly publishing data visualizations, they
were not spread evenly throughout the paper. From the 1930s to the 1970s, the
preponderance of charts appeared in the Business section.
More specifically, the vast majority of mid-century newspaper graphics
were line charts showing commercial trends like changes in the stock market,
the production of automobiles, or the amount of electricity produced. It’s
probably no coincidence that these charts became common during the Great
Depression—when the economic health of the United States weighed heavily
on the minds of Times readers.
The fact that the business section was the earliest home of the chart is not a
surprise. Business and economics have always been at the forefront of statistical
graphics, and the economy produces lots of statistical data. The businessfocused Wall Street Journal was already publishing charts in the early 1920s.
Even today, most Times’ charts are in the Business section—18 of 25 for
the September 16, 2015 edition. This phenomenon can be observed across
the media spectrum (i.e. The Economist publishes a lot more charts than The
New Yorker).
While most of the graphics in the Times during this period were simple line
charts, there were some more complex visualizations. The following chart from
a 1960 edition of the Times is an early version of a lattice graphic—side by side
displays of the same information for different groups.
Computerization and the Rise of the Non-Business Chart (1980s-2000s)
The seeds of the newspaper chart explosion at the end of the 20th century
were sewn in the offices of IBM and Bell Labs decades earlier.
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In the 1950s and 60s, engineers developed computer programming languages
for the processing of statistical data (FORTRAN and S) and programs that
simplified data visualization (SAS and Lisp-Stat). These new tools for data
analysis and visualization were only comprehensible to a small number of
programmers. By the 1980s, however, software programs—like Lotus 1-2-3
and Microsoft Excel—were created and allowed more people to easily make
charts. Instead of hand drawing charts or using complicated graphic terminals,
journalists could now produce charts on personal computers.
From 1950 to 1975, the newspapers we examined averaged only two charts
per edition. From 1980 to 2005, this number increased to over 10.
The look of the charts in the Times also changed with computerization. In
the 1980s and 1990s, the Times was full of examples of what is now considered
poor chart making.
As charts became easier to make and more widely understood, their use
spread throughout the paper.
In our sample of Times pieces, we only found one chart used outside the
Business section before 1990. But starting in 1990, each of the issues we checked
had at least one chart outside the Business section.
The Modern Era (Late 2000s to this day)
By the late 2000s, charts had become central to the journalism at the
Times. The newspaper had a team of graphics reporters infusing the paper with
innovative visualizations. For the Times web edition, those data visualizations
were often interactive.
The Times has been at the vanguard of making complex statistical graphics,
but the Washington Post, USA Today, and Los Angeles Times have also committed
significant resources to data visualization over the last decade.
Not only did newspaper charts become more complex, they became more
common. The September, 14, 2010, edition of the New York Times had 26
different charts, seven of which were outside the business section.
The New York Times cemented their prioritization of visual journalism
when they launched the data-driven news site the Upshot in 2014. The Upshot’s
original team of fifteen included three full-time graphic journalists. Amanda
Cox, the site’s current editor, started at the Times in 2004 as a graphics reporter.
Today, it is not unusual for an Upshot graphic to occupy the most prominent
space on the front page of the New York Times website.
Over the course of the last century, the chart has gone from obscure academic
tool to a mainstay of the front page. This revolution in data visualization came
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about thanks largely to better technology and more accessible data. These days,
a newspaper without a chart would barely feel like a newspaper at all.
From https://priceonomics.com/when-did-charts-become-popular/
1 When should you use a past tense when describing a line graph?
2 When should you use a present perfect tense?
3 When would you use the present tense?
Task 3.49 Draw a visual aid to represent the information in your research
in the graphic form. Describe it, using the information you learned in this unit.
CITATIONS AND REFERENCES
Task 3.50 Read the information about author-prominent vs. informationprominent citations. Write out the definitions of author-prominent and
information-prominent citations and learn them.
The Introduction should mention closely related papers which have been
published elsewhere. Such references help to keep the literature neat and
tidy for those who must search it. In a literature review, it is important to
combine information from different sources and show how different pieces of
information relate to each other.
When you cite the work of other authors – either in a quotation or a
paraphrase, you have choices about the way that you make use of their work.
You may choose to focus on the information which is provided by the author
or on the author himself.
Information-prominent citations focus on the evidence / information itself
rather than the author who gave it. This type of reference allows the focus of
the sentence to be on the issues. Details about the author and the source go in
the footnotes or references.
Example:
These elements should be seen as recombinant, as journalists shape and are
being shaped by the various contexts involved in multimedia news work (Lievrouw
and Livingstone, 2002).
This kind of citation is more common when you are making generalizations
about the topic or presenting information which is generally agreed to be true.
Author-prominent citations place the author in a prominent position in the
sentence. This type of reference is often found when the arguments or findings
of different authors are being contrasted.
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Example:
Dahlgren (1996) proposes a framework for conceptualizing the reconfiguration
of journalism and its public in a new media environment in terms of a media
logic, defined as the particular institutionally structured features of a medium, the
ensemble of technical and organizational attributes, and the cultural competences
of users—all of which impact on what gets represented in the medium and how
this gets done.
Many students overuse this form of citation thinking that the ideas of other
authors will be an adequate substitute for their own. The end result is that the
student’s work reads like a list of what other people think. This shows that the
student is not in control of the topic and has not critically analyzed the subject.
It can also make a writing assignment boring to read.
Task 3.51 In your target articles, find examples of author-prominent and
information-prominent citations.
Task 3.52 Read the text about how to cite the references. Make up five
questions to the text to ask your classmates. Take turns to ask and answer the
questions.
Vocabulary
to list – вносить в список, перечислять
parenthetically – в скобках
pagination – нумерация страниц, разбивка на страницы
edit out – удалять при редактировании
period – точка (Am); full stop (Br)
et al. – и др.; с соавторами (в библиографии)
References – список использованных источников
There are two rules to follow in the References section.
First, you should list only significant published references. References
to unpublished data, abstracts, theses, and other secondary materials should
not clutter up the References or Literature Cited section. If such a reference
seems essential, you may add it parenthetically or, in some journals, as a
footnote in the text. A paper that has been accepted for publication can be
listed in Literature Cited, citing the name of the journal followed by ‘In press’
or ‘Forthcoming’.
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Second, check all parts of every reference against the original publication
before the manuscript is submitted and perhaps again at the proof stage. Take
it from an erstwhile librarian: There are far more mistakes in the References
section of a paper than anywhere else.
And do not forget, as a final check, to make sure that all references cited in
the text are indeed listed in the Literature Cited and that all references listed
in the Literature Cited are indeed cited somewhere in the text.
Reference Styles
Journals vary considerably in their style of handling references. Some
journals print titles of articles and some do not. Some insist on inclusive
pagination, whereas others print first pages only. The smart author retains full
information about every item that might be cited.
Then, in preparing a manuscript, they have all the needed information.
It is easy to edit out information; it is indeed laborious to track down 20 or so
references to add article titles or ending pages when you are required to do so by
a journal editor. Even if you know that the journal to which you plan to submit
your manuscript uses a short form (no article titles, for example), you would
still be wise to establish your reference list in the complete form. This is good
practice because (1) the journal you selected may reject your manuscript, and
you may then decide to submit the manuscript to another journal, perhaps one
with more demanding requirements, and (2) it is more than likely that you will
use some of the same references again, in later research papers, review papers
(and most review journals demand full references), or books.
When you submit a manuscript for publication, make sure that the
references are presented according to the Instructions for Authors. If the
references are radically different, the editor and referees may assume that
this is a sign of previous rejection or, at best, obvious evidence of lack of care.
Although there is an almost infinite variety of reference styles, most journals
cite references in one of three general ways that may be referred to as ‘name
and year’, ‘alphabet-number’, and ‘citation order’.
Name and Year System
The name and year system (often called the Harvard system) has been
very popular for many years and is used by many journals and books. Its big
advantage is convenience to the author. Because the references are unnumbered,
references can be added or deleted easily. No matter how many times the
reference list is modified, ‘Smith and Jones (2005)’ remains exactly that. If
there are two or more ‘Smith and Jones (2005)’ references, the problem is
easily handled by listing the first as ‘Smith and Jones (2005a)’, the second
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as ‘Smith and Jones (2005b)’, etc. The disadvantage to the reader occurs
when (often in the Introduction) many references must be cited within one
sentence or paragraph. Sometimes the reader must jump over several lines of
parenthetical references before they can pick up the text. Even two or three
references, cited together, can distract the reader. The disadvantage to the
publisher is obvious: increased cost. When ‘Smith, Jones, and Higginbotham
(2005)’ can be converted to ‘(7)’, printing costs can be reduced.
Because some papers are written by an unwieldy number of authors, most
journals that use name and year have an ‘et al.’ rule. Most typically, it works
as follows. Names are always used in citing papers with either one or two
authors, e.g. ‘Smith (2005)’, ‘Smith and Jones (2005)’. If the paper has three
authors, list all three the first time the paper is cited, e.g. Smith, Jones, and
Mc Gillicuddy (2005)’. If the same paper is cited again, it can be shortened to
Smith et al. (2005)’. When a cited paper has four or more authors, it should
be cited as ‘Smith et al. (2005)’ even in the first citation. In the References
section, some journals prefer that all authors be listed (no matter how many);
other journals cite only the first three authors and follow with ‘et al.’”
Alphabet-Number System
This system, citation by number from an alphabetized list of references,
is a modification of the name and year system. Citation by numbers keeps
printing expenses within bounds; the alphabetized list, particularly if it is long,
is relatively easy for authors to prepare and readers (especially librarians) to use.
Some authors who have habitually used name and year tend to dislike
the alphabet-number system, claiming the citation of numbers cheats the
reader. The reader should be told, the argument goes, the name of the person
associated with the phenomenon; sometimes, the reader should also be told
the date, on the grounds that a 1904 reference might be viewed differently
than a 2004 reference.
Fortunately, these arguments can be overcome. As you cite references in
the text, decide whether names or dates are important. If they are not (as is
usually the case), use only the reference number. If you want to feature the
name of the author, do it within the context or the sentence. If you want to
feature the date, you can also do it within the sentence.
Citation Order System
The citation order system is simply a system of citing the references (by
number) in the order that they appear in the paper. This system avoids the
substantial printing expense of the name and year system, and readers often
like it because they can quickly refer to the references if they so desire in
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one-two-three order as they come to them in the text. It is a useful system for
a journal that is basically a ‘note’ journal, each paper containing only a few
references. For long papers, with many references, citation order is probably
not a good system. It is not good for the author, because of the substantial
renumbering chore that can result from addition or deletion of references. It
is not ideal for the reader, because the non-alphabetical presentation of the
reference list may result in separation of various references to works by the
same author.
In addition to its non-alphabetical arrangement of references, the citation
order system differs from the others in its advocacy of eliminating periods after
abbreviations (of journal titles, for example), periods after authors’ initials, and
commas after authors’ surnames.
1
Task 3.53 Compare the examples of different reference styles:
Name and Year System:
Altheide, David and Snow, Robert (1991) Media Worlds in the
Postjournalism Era, New York: Walter de Gruyter.
Bardoel, Jo and Deuze, Mark (2001) Network Journalism: converging
competences of media professionals and professionalism’, Australian
Journalism Review 23(2), pp. 91–103.
Davis, Charles and Craft, Stephanie (2000) New Media Synergy:
emergence of institutional conflicts of interest, Journal of Mass Media Ethics
15(4), pp. 219–31.
Alphabet-Number System:
1. Altheide, David and Snow, Robert (1991) Media Worlds in the
Postjournalism Era, New York: Walter de Gruyter.
2. Bardoel, Jo and Deuze, Mark (2001) Network Journalism: converging
competences of media professionals and professionalism, Australian Journalism
Review 23(2), pp. 91–103.
3. Davis, Charles and Craft, Stephanie (2000) New Media Synergy:
emergence of institutional conflicts of interest, Journal of Mass Media Ethics
15(4), pp. 219–31.
Citation Order System:
1. Davis Ch, Craft S. New Media Synergy: emergence of institutional
conflicts of interest. Journal of Mass Media Ethics 15(4) 2000; pp. 219–31.
1
From Day R.A., Gastel B.. How to Write and Publish a Scientific Paper. P. 75–81.
108
2. Altheide D, Snow R. Media Worlds in the Postjournalism Era, New
York: Walter de Gruyter, 1991.
3. Bardoel J, Deuze M. Network Journalism: converging competences of
media professionals and professionalism. Australian Journalism Review 23(2),
2001; pp. 91–103.
Task 3.54 Read the text about citing electronic material and retell it in pairs.
The Internet increasingly contains material appropriate for citation. In
particular, many research papers now are appearing in electronic journals or
being posted online as well as appearing in print. In addition, some reports,
databases, and other items accessed online can be valid to cite.
Accordingly, formats have been developed, and are continuing to be
developed, for citing electronic materials. These formats appear in recent
editions of style manuals and in the Instructions to Authors of some journals.
If you wish to cite electronic material, begin by consulting the Instructions
to Authors of your target journal. These instructions may show the format(s)
to use or direct you to a source of guidance in print or online. Also, you may
find it useful to look in the journal for examples of references listing electronic
materials.
Task 3.55 Study the examples of citing electronic materials and compare
them with the requirements for publication in Russian journals.
1
HERRMANN, STEVE (2009) ‘Mumbai, Twitter and Live Updates’, BBC
The Editors, http://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/theeditors/2008/12/theres_been_
discussion_see_eg.html, accessed 4 December 2008.
INGRAM, MATTHEW (2008) ‘Yes, Twitter Is a Source of Journalism’,
MatthewIngram.com, http://www.mathewingram.com/work/2008/11/26/yestwitter-is-a-source-of-journalism/, accessed 4 June 2009.
JOHNSON, STEVEN (2009) ‘How Twitter Will Change the Way We Live’,
Time, http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,1902604,00.html, accessed
5 June 2009.
KOBLIN, JOHN (2009) ‘Twitter Culture Wars at The Times: ‘We need a
zone of trust’, Bill Keller tells staff’, The New York Observer, http://www.observer.
com/2009/media/twitter-culturewars-itimesi, accessed 17 June 2009.
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2
Surman, Mark and Reilly, Katherine (2003) Appropriating the Internet
for Social Change: Towards the Strategic Use of Networked Technologies by
Transnational Civil Society Organizations, Social Science Research Council,
[cited 12 May 2005]. Available http://www.ssrc.org/programs/itic/publications/
knowledge_report/final_exec_summary.pdf.
Tankard, James W and Ban, Hyun (1998) ‘Online Newspapers: Living up
to Their Potential?’ Paper presented at AEJMC annual conference, August, at
Baltimore, MD, [cited 6 May 2005] Available http://list.msu.edu/cgibin/ wa?A
2=ind9810b&L=aejmc&F=&S=&P=1372.
Ye, Sandy and Li, Xigen (2004) ‘Internet Newspapers’ Public Forum and User
Involvement’, Paper presented at Association for Education in Journalism and
Mass Communication, August, at Toronto, Canada, [cited 17 May 2005] Available
http://list.msu.edu/cgi-bin/wa?A2=ind0411C&L=aejmc&P=R151269.
3
Hagen, Guy (2010) Twinfluence. http://twinfluence.com/about.php (accessed
17 December 2010)
Haiti earthquake Twitter updates: Live real-time pictures (2010) The
Huffington Post, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2010/01/13/haitiearthquaketwitter_n421722.html (accessed 4 June 2010)
Hermida, Alfred (2009b) Budding journalists use Twitter, blogs to open doors.
MediaShift, http://www.pbs.org/mediashift/2009/02/buddingjournalists-usetwitterblogs-to-opendoors041.html (accessed 9 June 2010)
Task 3.56 Use the following reference information to complete the
sentences according to name and year system. In each sentence, you should
choose carefully which part of the reference information needs to be used.
Bardoel, Jo and Deuze, Mark (2001) Network Journalism: converging
competences of media professionals and professionalism, Australian Journalism
Review 23(2), pp. 91–103.
1) The problem with this body of literature according to __________ is
that it tends to be either too normative, or that it remains overtly descriptive.
2) Especially in recent years, several efforts have been made to professional-
ize the scholarship of journalism education ___________.
3) Indeed, ___________ suggest an emerging consensus on homogeneous
standards as a key trend in their comparison of journalism education in Europe
and the United States.
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