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Unit 7. Cloud Comruting
101
Explicit [ɪkˈsplɪsɪt] when you are talking about a statement or piece of writ-
ing it means that it is clear and easy to understand, so that you have no doubt what
is meant.
Exponential [ˌekspəˈnenʃl] this word is used in terms of a rate of increase
and means becoming faster and faster.
Figure out is a phrasal verb. It means to finally understand something or
someone, or find the solution to a problem after a lot of thought.
Heuristics [hjʊˈrɪs.tɪks] means a way of solving problems by discovering
things yourself and learning from your own experiences.
Hypothetical [ˌhaɪ.pəˈθet.ɪ.kəl] means that something is imagined or sug-
gested but not necessarily real or true.
Identification [aɪˌden.tɪ.fɪˈkeɪ.ʃən] is the act of recognizing and naming
someone or something.
Immense [ɪˈmens] means that something is extremely large in size or
degree.
Infer [ɪnˈfɜːr] means to form an opinion or guess that something is true be-
cause of the information that you have.
Infuse [ɪnˈfjuːz] means to cause someone or something to take in and be
filled with a quality or a condition of mind.
Interactive [ˌɪn.təˈræk.tɪv] − an interactive system or computer program is
designed to involve the user in the exchange of information.
Iterative [ˈɪt.ər.ə.tɪv]. This word is rather specific. It is used in mathematics
and computing. It means doing something again and again, usually to improve it.
Neuroscience [ˌnjʊə.rəʊˈsaɪəns] is the scientific study of the nervous sys-
tem and the brain.
Psychology [saɪˈkɒl.ə.dʒi] Mind the right pronunciation of this word. We
don’t pronounce the first letter “P” This word means the scientific study of the
way the human mind works and how it influences behaviour, or the influence of
a particular person's character on their behaviour.
Machinery [məˈʃiː.nər.i] is a group of machines, or the movable parts of a
machine.
Realm [realm] is an area of interest or activity. For example, Her interests
are in the realm of practical politics. Mind the right preposition.
Retaliate [rɪˈtæl.i.eɪt] means to hurt someone or do something harmful to
someone because they have done or said something harmful to you.
Unit 7. Cloud Comruting
102
Robust [rəʊˈbʌst] if we are speaking of a person or animal, it means strong
and healthy, or if we are speaking of an object or system, it means strong and
unlikely to break or fail.
Scrutiny [ˈskruː.tɪ.ni] means the careful and detailed examination of some-
thing in order to get information about it.
Singularity [ˌsɪŋ.ɡjəˈlær.ə.ti] means the quality of being strange.
Sentient [ˈsen.ti.ənt] [ˈsen.ʃənt] there are two variants of pronunciation.
This word means to be able to experience feelings.
Stilted [ˈstɪl.tɪd] this word is used when we speak about a person's behaviour
or way of speaking or writing when it is too formal and not smooth or natural.
Surveillance [səˈveɪ.ləns] is the careful watching of a person or place,
especially by the police or army, because of a crime that has happened or is
expected.
Syntax [ˈsɪn.tæks] is the grammatical arrangement of words in a sentence.
Tedious [ˈtiː.di.əs] means boring and tiring, esp. because something is long
or often repeated.
Time-consuming [ˈtaɪm.kənˌsjuː.mɪŋ] means taking a lot of time to do or
complete.
Turing Test [ˈtjʊə.rɪŋ ˌtest] is a test of whether a computer can show intel-
ligent behaviour like that of a human, done by seeing if a tester can tell whether
the answers to a set of questions come from the computer or from a person.
4. Think about the Russian equivalents of the terms given above.
5. Match the following definitions with the terms.
DIFINITIONS
TERMS
1
To recognize the difference between two people or things.
stilted
2
To develop a wider range of products, interests, skills, etc. in
order to be more successful or reduce risk.
expand
3
To experience something, especially something unpleasant or
difficult, while you are trying to do something else.
distinguish
4
To become greater in size, number or importance.
figure out
5
When you are talking about a statement or piece of writing it
means that it is clear and easy to understand, so that you have
no doubt what is meant.
scrutiny
6
To finally understand something or someone or find the solution to a problem after a lot of thought.
encounter
Unit 7. Cloud Comruting
103
DIFINITIONS
TERMS
7
A way of solving problems by discovering things yourself and
learning from your own experiences.
heuristics
8
Imagined or suggested but not necessarily real or true.
Turing test
9
The act of recognizing and naming someone or something.
diversify
10
To cause someone or something to take in and be filled with a
quality or a condition of mind.
to infuse
11
The scientific study of the way the human mind works and how
it influences behaviour, or the influence of a particular person's
character on their behaviour.
identification
12
A group of machines, or the movable parts of a machine.
hypothetical
13
The careful and detailed examination of something in order to
get information about it.
psychology
14
When we speak about a person's behaviour or way of speaking
or writing when it is too formal and not smooth or natural.
explicit
15
A test of whether a computer can show intelligent behaviour
like that of a human, done by seeing if a tester can tell whether
the answers to a set of questions come from the computer or
from a person.
machinery
6. Match the words in A with their synonyms in B.
A B
1
comprehend
a
understand
2
differentiate
b
distinguish
3
evolve
c
expand
4
exhausted
d
weak
5
explicit
e
clear
6
immense
f
enormous
7
infer g deduce
8
robust
h
tough
9
tedious
i
boring
10
realm
j
sphere
7. Read the definition and write the term.
DEFINITIONS
TERMS
1
The careful watching of a person or place, especially
by the police or army, because of a crime that has
happened or is expected (12 letters).
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Unit 7. Cloud Comruting
104
DEFINITIONS
TERMS
2
A group of machines, or the movable parts of a machine (9).
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
3
The study and development of computer systems that
can copy intelligent human behaviour (10, 12).
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
4
The act of recognizing and naming someone or
something (14).
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
_ _
5
Boring and tiring, esp. because something is long or
often repeated (7).
_ _ _ _ _ _ _
6
Doing something again and again, usually to improve it (9).
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
7
An interactive system or computer program is designed to involve the user in the exchange of information (11).
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
8
The scientific study of the nervous system and the
brain (12).
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
9
The act of forming an opinion of the amount, value
or quality of something after thinking about it carefully (10).
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
10
A test of whether a computer can show intelligent behaviour like that of a human, done by seeing if a tester
can tell whether the answers to a set of questions
come from the computer or from a person (6, 4).
_ _ _ _ _ _
_ _ _ _
11
To reach inside a bag, container, etc. to search for
something (5).
_ _ _ _ _
12
The quality of being strange (11).
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
13
To be able to experience feelings (8).
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
14
The grammatical arrangement of words in a sentence (6).
_ _ _ _ _ _
15
Used in terms of a rate of increase and means becoming faster and faster (11).
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
USEFUL GRAMMAR
Grammar to study: Modals
8. Choose the word or phrase that best completes each sentence.
1. My laptop _____ be old. But it still works quite well.
Unit 7. Cloud Comruting
105
a) would b) can c) ought to
2. Hardware devices _____ include external components of a computer
system.
a) have to b) would c) can
3. A Turing Test is a conceptual method for determining whether ma-
chines ____ think like a human.
a) might b) should c) can
4. A modern-day example _____ be the CAPTCHA test that verifies human
identity.
a) could b) ought to c) should
5. The terms AI and ML ______ be confused as the same or used inter-
changeably.
a) shouldn’t b) mustn’t c) don’t have to
6. Developed and created by Hanson robotics and _____ carry out a wide
range of human actions.
a) would b) should c) can
7. With all these technological advancements we ______ have a great fu-
ture ahead.
a) have to b) might c) must
8. To work for this company you _____ to learn C++.
a) have to b) must c) can
9. While working you ____ back up regularly in order not to lose some data.
a) could b) can c) should
10. The devices _____ be separated by a few meters or nearly unlimited
distances.
a) must b) can c) should
11. In 1964, researchers at Dartmouth ______ develop the Dartmouth Time
Sharing System for distributed users of large computer system.
a) should b) can c) had to
12. To trick the eye and the brain into thinking they are seeing a smoothly
moving object, the picture _____ drawn at around 12 frames per second.
a) should have b) should be c) must have
13. Multimedia ______ be broadly divided into linear and non-linear
categories.
a) have to b) must c) may
Unit 7. Cloud Comruting
106
14. The number of pixels in the images determines the size of these images.
They _____ be printed or displayed at the same size.
a) must b) may c) ought to
15. Models _____ created automatically or manually.
a) can b) may be c) must have
9. Read the text and fill the gaps with one of the modal verbs (can x 6,
may x 2, must x 2, should x 2) and the correct infinitive form (active or pas-
sive, present or perfect) of the verb in brackets.
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE DEFINITION:
BASICS OF AI
Understanding AI
Broadly speaking, artificially intelligent systems (1) _____ (perform) tasks
commonly associated with human cognitive functions − such as interpreting
speech, playing games and identifying patterns. They typically (2) _____ (learn)
how to do so by processing massive amounts of data, looking for patterns to
model in their own decision-making. In many cases, humans (3) _____ (super-
vise) an AI’s learning process, reinforcing good decisions and discouraging bad
ones. But some AI systems (4) _____ (design) to learn without supervision — for
instance, by playing a video game over and over until they eventually figure out
the rules and how to win.
Strong AI Vs. Weak AI
Intelligence (5) _____ (be) tricky to define, which is why AI experts typi-
cally distinguish between strong AI and weak AI.
Strong AI
Strong AI, also known as artificial general intelligence, is a machine that
(6) _____ (solve) problems it’s never been trained to work on — much like a
human (7) _____. This is the kind of AI we (8) _____ (see) in movies, like the
robots from Westworld or the character Data from Star Trek: The Next Generation. This type of AI doesn’t actually exist yet.
The creation of a machine with human-level intelligence that (9) _____ (ap-
ply) to any task is the Holy Grail for many AI researchers, but the quest for artificial general intelligence has been fraught with difficulty. And some believe
strong AI research (10) _____ (limit), due to the potential risks of creating a powerful AI without appropriate guardrails.
Unit 7. Cloud Comruting
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In contrast to weak AI, strong AI represents a machine with a full set of
cognitive abilities — and an equally wide array of use cases — but time hasn't
eased the difficulty of achieving such a feat.
Weak AI
Weak AI, sometimes referred to as narrow AI or specialized AI, (11) _____
(operate) within a limited context and is a simulation of human intelligence applied to a narrowly defined problem (like driving a car, transcribing human
speech or curating content on a website).
Weak AI is often focused on performing a single task extremely well. While
these machines (12) _____ (seem) intelligent, they operate under far more constraints and limitations than even the most basic human intelligence.
Weak AI examples include: Siri, Alexa and other smart assistants, Self-driv-
ing cars, Google search, Conversational bots, Email spam filters, Netflix’s rec-
ommendations.
SPECIALIST READING
10. Skim the following article and match the headings with the para-
graphs.
HEADINGS
1
Artificial Intelligence - Boon or Curse?
2
Components and Applications of AI Explained
3
Defining the term: What is Artificial Intelligence?
4
How Does AI Work?
5
The Birth of Artificial Intelligence (AI): How it Came into Existence?
Nowadays, there is a lot of buzz about this popular technology, Artificial
Intelligence aka A.I. not only in the field of Computer Science but every other
area that can be thought of, expanding from medical, commerce and even in agriculture. So, what is artificial intelligence?
A___________
Intelligence is stated as “generalized learning”, learning that enables the
learner to perform better in the situation not previously encountered. Intelligence
covers areas like reasoning, problem-solving, perception and analyzing, features
and relationship between objects and language understanding with rules and syntax just another human would learn and interpret. Artificial Intelligence, on the
other hand, can be described as a system or a machine that can be made to
Unit 7. Cloud Comruting
108
stimulate such features of intelligence thus, having the capability to solve and
evaluate problems that were reserved for us, humans with natural intelligence.
B_______________
Even though the term artificial intelligence was first framed by John McCarthy when he first held the conference in Dartmouth college in 1955, but the journey to understand if machines can truly think had begun much before. In 1950,
English Mathematician Alan Turing published a paper entitled “Computing Ma-
chinery and Intelligence” which opened doors to the field that would be called
AI. The Turing Test was the first-ever method or experiment to be worked on for
deciding the intellectual capabilities of the machine.
A Turing Test is a conceptual method for determining whether machines can
think like a human. The classic test is a game of imitation. In this game, an interrogator asks two participants a series of questions. One of the participants is a
machine and the other is human. The interrogator can't see or hear the participants
and has no way of knowing which is which. If the interrogator is unable to figure
out which participant is a machine based on the responses, the machine passes
the Turing Test. A modern-day example could be the CAPTCHA test that verifies
human identity.
C___________
So, how does this work? How can a machine think, analyze and make a
decision like a human brain? If you have ever owned a pet and have noticed that
they understand and respond to certain signs and words, without learning our language, have you ever thought how can they perceive it and retaliate accordingly?
It’s simple, all they do is pay attention to our words or actions, remember them
and finally, they retain it and create a pattern for the future.
This is what our scientists are trying to achieve from machines in the field
of AI. The idea began with designing interactive and reliable computer-based decision-making systems that used both facts and heuristics to solve complex decision-making problems. Eventually, AI so far has accomplished much more. AI
now works by combining large amounts of data with fast, iterative processing
and intelligent algorithms, allowing the software or the machine to learn automatically from patterns and features in data.
D____________
AI is a vast and diversified field and supports a variety of sub-fields in its
realm. There are different techniques to achieve different goals in respective
Unit 7. Cloud Comruting
109
sectors, ranging from computer science, psychology, philosophy, neuroscience,
cognitive science, linguistics to economics, probability, logic and many others.
Let us learn about the major sub-fields that are being encountered by artifi-
cial intelligence in today’s world.
1. Machine Learning (ML)
Often, the terms AI and ML are confused as the same or used interchangeably. ML is categorized as a subfield of artificial intelligence, you can think of it
as the training phase for the machine that would later be capable enough to read,
understand, infer and finally solve a complex problem like any other biological
human brain could do. Machine Learning is all about the concept of enhancing
traditional programming which requires explicit instructions with smart algorithms to make machines capable to infer and analyze the problems and come up
with a solution with the help of already fed facts and data or from past self-learning. Real-world examples of machine learning include designing various algorithms taking over to deal with issues which would be hard or would be timeconsuming if humans would have put their mind in it, such as treating cancer,
managing cybersecurity and many more.
2. Neural Networks
This is the next most talked about subject when it comes to artificial intelligence. Understand this as implementing the training phase (discussed above) into
a model, such that we can pass data and facts to an algorithm and it would give
us predictions or solutions, based on what it has gathered and inferred so far and
also, on what it has learned from self-training and evaluation.
3. Natural Language Processing (NLP)
NLP is defined as the automatic manipulation of natural language, like
speech and text, by software.
The best way to explain is by taking an example of the voice assistants
we use in our daily lives like Siri or Google Assistant. We communicate with
them just as we would do with other humans. Also, there is some software under
development that can analyze the text entered by the user and produce the expected results.
4. Computer Vision
This subset relies on pattern recognition and the ability of the machine to
analyze digital pictures or videos. Human vision starts at the biological camera’s
Unit 7. Cloud Comruting
110
“eyes,” which takes one picture of every 200 milliseconds, while computer vision
starts by providing input to the machine.
There are many computer vision applications out in the market. Below are a
few of them:
• Automatic inspection, e.g., in manufacturing applications
• Assisting humans in identification tasks e.g., a species identification
system
• Detecting events, e.g., for visual surveillance or people counting
5. Robots
Robots or Humanoid Robots are artificial agents which behave like humans
and possess human thought process - a man-made machine with our intellectual
abilities. This would include the ability to learn just about anything, the ability to
reason, the ability to use language and the ability to formulate original ideas,
without getting bored, distracted or exhausted. Although we have been seeing
robots since childhood in many sci-fi movies there has been an advancement in
science in the 21st century that the robots have come into existence. Here are
some of them for your facts.
Sophia
Developed and created by Hanson robotics and can carry out a wide range
of human actions. It is said that she is capable of making up to fifty facial expressions and can equally express feelings.
Jia Jia
This robot is invented by the University of Science and Technology, China.
She is capable of making conversations but has limited motion and stilted speech.
She does not have a full range of expressions but the team of inventors plans to
make further developments and infuse learning abilities in her.
Apart from this, there are many more areas that are being studied in this field
and are being tested. Deep learning, cognitive computing tops the list and is upcoming with applications of their own.
E___________
As we have observed from the above discussion, the ultimate aim of artificial intelligence is technological singularity - the point at which technology takes
over humans.
AI takeover is a hypothetical scenario in which artificial intelligence becomes the dominant form of intelligence on Earth. The good part is that these
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