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Файл:Английский язык (дистанционное обучение) лингвометодическое обеспечение формирования навыков самостоятельной работы. Учебное пособие
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111
left to right. People went on using some form of abacus well into the 16th
century, and it is still being used in some parts of the world because it can
be understood without knowing how to read. During the 17th and 18th
centuries many people tried to find easy ways of calculating. J. Napier,
a Scotsman, devised a mechanical way of multiplying and dividing, which
is how the modem slide rule works. Henry Briggs used Napier’s ideas to
produce logarithm tables which all mathematicians use today. Calculus,
another branch of mathematics, was independently invented by Sir Isaac
Newton, an Englishman, and Leibniz, a German mathematician.
The first real calculating machine appeared in 1820 as the result of
several people’s experiments. This type of machine, which saves a great
deal of time and reduces the possibility of making mistakes, depends on
a series of ten-toothed gear wheels. In 1830 Charles Babbage, an
Englishman, designed a machine that was called “The Analytical Engine”.
This machine, which Babbage showed at the Paris Exhibition in 1855, was
an attempt to cut out the human being altogether, except for providing the
machine with the necessary facts about the problem to be solved. He never
finished this work, but many of his ideas were the basis for building
today’s computers.
In 1930, the first analog computer was built by an American named
Vannevar Bush. This device was used in World War II to help aim guns.
Mark I, the name given to the first digital computer, was completed in
1944. The men responsible for this invention were Professor Howard
Aiken and some people from IBM. This was the first machine that could
figure out long lists of mathematical problems, all at a very fast rate. In
1946 two engineers at the University of Pennsylvania, J. Eckert and
J. Mauchly built the first digital computer using parts called vacuum tubes.
They named their new invention ENIAC. Another important advancement
in computers came in 1947, when John von Newmann developed the idea
of keeping instructions for the computer inside the computer’s memory.
112
Задание 4. Прочитайте текст, найдите все случаи употребления
инфинитива и инфинитивных конструкций (“Infinitive”) и страдательного залога (“Passive Voice”).
Helium
Helium is known to have been discovered in 1868 in the atmosphere
of the sun, where it is an important constituent.
Slight amounts of it proved to be present in the earth’s atmosphere,
the mail terrestrial source of helium being mineral. It also occurs in
association with natural gas used for fuel.
It happens to be the lightest element except for hydrogen. Helium is
found to have a wide variety of technological uses. Its firs common use
was to lift balloons and its lifting power as compared with that of
hydrogen is only 93 percent, but it is safe from explosion and burning. As
the helium molecule, which contains only 2 atoms, is so small the gas can
be used as a detector of minute leaks in such small things as space
capsules.
We know liquid helium to be used as refrigerant. Helium is also used
as the inert gas instead of nitrogen. It replaces nitrogen in medical uses, as
it is lighter and thus easier to breathe. Helium is found to be used in
a mixture with oxygen, the mixture being used as a synthetic atmosphere
by the workers who have to work under high pressures. Deposits that
contain helium are mostly used for fuel. Helium is stated to be lost
irretrievably. Scientists face the problem how to avoid the loss of helium,
which is so important.
From the standpoint of variety of its uses, helium is considered to be
the most important of the inert gases. Despite the fact that its discovery
was long delayed and that it was once believed to be very rare, in reality,
this gas is widely distributed but in small amounts.
The scientists estimated helium to be present in the extent of 0.0004
per cent by volume in the air and in various naturally occurring minerals
and gases.
113
Задание 5. Прочитайте текст, найдите все случаи употребления
причастий (“Participles”) и страдательного залога (“Passive Voice”).
Automated Production Lines
An automated production line consists of a series of workstations
connected by a transfer system to move parts between the stations. This is
an example of fixed automation, since these lines are set up for long
production runs, making large number of product units and running for
several years between changeovers. Each station is designed to perform
a specific processing operation, so that the part or product is constructed
stepwise as it progresses along the line. A raw work part enters at one end
of the line, proceeds through each workstation and appears at the other end
as a completed product In the normal operation of the line, there is a work
part being processed at each station, so that many parts are being
processed simultaneously and a finished part is produced with each cycle
of the line. The various operations, part transfers, and other activities
taking place on an automated transfer line must all be sequenced and
coordinated properly for the line to operate efficiently.
Modern automated lines are controlled by programmable logic
controllers, which are special computers that can perform timing and
sequencing functions required to operate such equipment Automated
production lines are utilized in many industries, mostly automobile, where
they are used for processes such as machining and pressworking.
Machining is a manufacturing process in which metal is removed by
a cutting or shaping tool, so that the remaining work part is the desired
shape. Machinery and motor components are usually made by this process.
In many cases, multiple operations are required to completely shape the
part. If the part is mass-produced, an automated transfer line is often the
most economical method of production. Many separate operations are
divided among the workstations.
Pressworking operations involve the cutting and forming of parts from
sheet metal. Examples of such parts include automobile body panels, outer
shells of laundry machines and metal furniture More than one processing
114
step is often required to complete a complicated part. Several presses are
connected together in sequence by handling mechanisms that transfer the
partially completed parts from one press to the next, thus creating an
automated press working line.
Задание 6. Прочитайте текст, найдите все случаи употребления
видовременных форм глагола в активном и страдательном залоге
(“Passive Voice”).
Ecological Problems of Russia
Russia is the largest country in the world with a territory of more than
17 million square kilometres. It covers 12.6 % of the dry-land surface of
the planet, and thus bears responsibility for the protection of a significant
part of the world’s natural and biological life. Official data show that
currently the ecological situation in Russia is generally poor, and in some
places it is catastrophic. 14–15 % of the Russian territory has been
classified as ecological “problem zones”. Satellite photographs show that
forests are being cut down at an alarming rate in Russia.
In the future, it is expected that the ecological situation will worsen, as
the economic growth is achieved with the use of principally out-dated
technologies and techniques. Negative ecological and economic factors
can be named among the causes of the worsening demographic situation in
Russia. According to experts’ assessments, ecological factors are to
a considerable extent responsible for these depressing demographic
indicators. Ecological problems are extremely closely intertwined and are
closely connected to global problems, such as: the greenhouse effect,
global warming (causing the sea-level to rise by 1.2 mm per year), ozone
layer depletion, and destruction of tree cover. Life expectancy has reached
incredibly low levels: 57 years for men, and 70 years for women.
In Russia, preservation of the environment is of crucial importance for
the future of civilization.
115
Задание 7. Прочитайте текст, найдите все случаи употребления
условных предложений (“Conditionals”), модальных глаголов (“Modal
Verbs”) и степеней сравнения прилагательных (“Comparison of
Adjectives”).
Electric Power Generation
Generators and motors are very closely related and many motors that
contain permanent magnets can also act as generators. If you move
a permanent magnet past a coil of wire that is part of an electric circuit,
you will cause current to flow through that coil and circuit. That’s because
a changing magnetic field, such as that near a moving magnet, is always
accompanied in nature by an electric field.
While magnetic fields push on magnetic poles, electric fields push on
electric charges. If a coil of wire near the moving magnet, the moving
magnet’s electric field pushes charges through the coil and eventually
through the entire circuit. A convenient arrangement for generating
electricity endlessly is to mount a permanent magnet on a spindle and to
place a coil of wire nearby. Then as the magnet spins, it will turn past the
coil of wire and propel currents through that coil.
If you take a common DC motor out of a toy and connect its two
electrical terminals to a 1.5 V light bulb or a light emitting diode (try both
directions with an LED because it can only carry current in one direction),
you’ll probably be able to light that bulb or LED by spinning the motor’s
shaft rapidly. A DC motor has a special switching system that converts the
AC produced in the motor’s coils into DC for delivery to the motor’s
terminals, but it’s still a generator. So the easiest answer to your question
would be: “find a nice DC motor and turn its shaft”.
There is no fundamental limit to how much current a generator can
handle, however, the characteristics of the generator’s wiring, its magnetic
fields, and the machinery turning it all tend to limit its current capacity.
A generator’s wires aren’t perfect and, as the current passing through the
generator increases, its wires waste more and more power. Like any
wiring, a generator’s wires convert electric power into thermal power in
116
proportion to the square of the current. Thus if you doubled the current in
the generator, you would quadruple the power loss. While this power loss
and the resulting heat are trivial at low currents, they become serious
problems at high currents. Increasing the current in the generator also
affects its magnetic fields because currents are magnetic. At a low current,
the current’s magnetism can be ignored. But when a generator is handling
a very large current, the magnetic fields associated with that current are no
longer small perturbations on the generator’s normal magnetic fields and
the generator may not perform properly any more.
Finally, a generator’s job is to transfer energy from a mechanical
system to the electric current passing through it. As the amount of current
in the generator increases, the amount of work that the mechanical system
provides must also increase – the generator becomes harder to turn. There
will always be a limit to how much torque an engine or crank can exert on
the generator to keep it spinning and thus there will be a limit to how much
current the generator can handle. As for how the current varies with load:
the more current the load permits to pass through it, the more current will
pass through the generator. Assuming that the generator is well built and
has very little electric resistance, the load would serve to limit the current.
The generator would then deliver just as much current as the load would
permit. If the load permitted more current, the generator would deliver
more. As a result, the wires in the generator would waste more power as
heat, the magnetic fields in the generator would become more complicated,
and the device powering the generator would have to work harder to keep
the generator turning.
117
Infinitive
Past Indefinite
Participle II
Основные значения
be
beat
become
begin
blow
break
bring
build
burn
burst
buy
catch
choose
come
cost
cut
deal
dig
do
draw
drink
eat
fall
feed
feel
fight
find
fly
forget
was, were
beat
became
began
blew
broke
brought
built
burnt
burst
bought
caught
chose
came
cost
cut
dealt
dug
did
drew
drank
ate
fell
fed
felt
fought
found
flew
forgot
been
beat
become
begun
blown
broken
brought
built
burnt
burst
bought
caught
chosen
come
cost
cut
dealt
dug
done
drawn
drunk
eaten
fallen
fed
felt
fought
found
flown
forgotten
быть
бить, разбивать
становиться
начинать
дуть, раздувать
ломать
приносить
строить
жечь, гореть
взрываться
покупать
хватать, ловить
выбирать
приходить
стоить
резать
иметь дело
копать
делать
тянуть, чертить
пить
есть, питаться
падать
кормить, питать
чувствовать
бороться
находить
летать
забывать
Приложение 2
ТАБЛИЦА НЕПРАВИЛЬНЫХ ГЛАГОЛОВ
118
Infinitive
Past Indefinite
Participle II
Основные значения
freeze
get
give
go
grow
hang
have
hear
hide
hold
hurt
keep
know
lay
lead
learn
leave
let
lie
light
lose
make
mean
meet
pay
put
read
ride
ring
rise
run
froze
got
gave
went
grew
hung (hanged)
had
heard
hid
held
hurt
kept
knew
laid
led
learnt (learned)
left
let
lay
lit
lost
made
meant
met
paid
put
read
rode
rang
rose
ran
frozen
got
given
gone
grown
hung (hanged)
had
heard
hidden
held
hurt
kept
known
laid
led
learnt (learned)
left
let
lain
lit
lost
made
meant
met
paid
put
read
ridden
rung
risen
run
замораживать
получать, доставать
давать
идти, ехать
расти
висеть, вешать
иметь
слышать
прятать(ся)
держать
причинять боль
держать, хранить
знать
класть, излагать
вести, управлять
учить, узнавать
оставлять, уходить
пускать, позволять
лежать
зажигать, освещать
терять
делать; заставлять
означать
встречать(ся)
платить
класть, положить
читать
ездить (верхом)
звонить
вставать, возникать
бежать, управлять
119
Infinitive
Past Indefinite
Participle II
Основные значения
say
see
sell
set
send
shake
shoot
show
shut
sing
sink
sit
sleep
speak
spend
spread
spring
stand
steal
strike
swim
take
tear
tell
think
throw
wake
wear
win
write
said
saw
sold
set
sent
shook
shot
showed
shut
sang
sank
sat
slept
spoke
spent
spread
sprang
stood
stole
struck
swam
took
tore
told
thought
threw
woke
wore
won
wrote
said
seen
sold
set
sent
shaken
shot
shown
shut
sung
sunk
sat
slept
spoken
spent
spread
sprung
stood
stolen
struck
swum
taken
torn
told
thought
thrown
а) woken
б) waken
worn
won
written
говорить, сказать
видеть
продавать
устанавливать
посылать
трясти
стрелять
показывать
закрывать
петь
тонуть, погружаться
сидеть
спать
говорить
тратить, проводить
распространять(ся)
прыгать, пружинить
стоять
похищать
ударять, поражать
плавать
брать
разрывать
сказать, сообщить
думать
бросать
просыпаться
будить
носить
побеждать
писать
120
age
ancient
appear
branch
branch off
deal with
deposit
design руда
development
device
distinction
engine
steam engine
engineering
civil engineering
mining engineering
mechanical engineering
electrical engineering
petroleum engineering
encompass
exploration
extraction
government
management
mark
implement
ingenuity
век, столетие, возраст
древний
появляться, возникать
отрасль
отделяться
иметь дело
залежь, месторождение
(n) проект, чертёж, конструкция, узор
(v) проектировать, чертить,
конструировать
развитие, разработка
устройство
различие
двигатель
паровой двигатель
инженерное дело, строительство
гражданское строительство
горное дело
машиностроение
электротехника
нефтяное дело
заключать (в себе), затрагивать
исследование, разведка
извлечение, добыча
правительство
управление, дирекция
отмечать
осуществлять, выполнять
гениальность
1B Reading
VOCABULARY (СЛОВАРЬ)
UNIT 1
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