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Файл:Ординатура / Хирургия / Библиотека им академика М.И. Перельмана / Книга_3591_Библиотеки_им_академика_М_И_Перельмана.pdf
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- •Preface
- •Acknowledgments
- •Contents
- •About the Editor
- •1.6 Acute Gastrointestinal Bleeding
- •1.7 Transjugular Intrahepatic Portosystemic Shunt
- •1.8 Conclusion
- •References
- •2.1 Introduction
- •2.2 History-Taking
- •2.4 Pre-procedure Imaging
- •2.5 Pre-procedure Investigations
- •2.8 Informed Consent
- •2.10 Part Preparation
- •2.11 Antibiotic Prophylaxis
- •References
- •3.1 Introduction
- •3.2 Ultrasonography
- •3.2.1 Advantages
- •1.1 Introduction
- •1.2 Early Beginnings
- •1.3 Catheter-Directed Thrombolysis
- •1.4 Stents
- •1.5 Coronary Angiography
- •3.2.3 Limitations
- •3.3 Fluoroscopy
- •3.3.1 Indications
- •3.3.2 Interventional Fluoroscopy
- •3.3.2.1 Digital Subtraction Angiography
- •3.4 Computed Tomography
- •3.4.2 Indications
- •3.4.3 Limitations
- •3.5 Magnetic Resonance Imaging
- •3.5.3 Limitations
- •3.6.3 Remove Anti-scatter Grid
- •3.6.4 Pulsed Fluoroscopy
- •3.6.5 Checklist
- •3.9 Conclusion
- •References
- •4.1 Introduction
- •4.2 Pharmaceutical Agents
- •4.2.1 Contrast Agents
- •4.2.2 Iodinated Contrast Media (ICM)
- •Pathogenesis
- •Risk Factors
- •Diagnosis
- •Risk Threshold
- •4.5 Conclusion
- •References
- •4.3 Carbon Dioxide
- •4.3.1 Indication
- •4.3.2 Contraindications
- •4.3.3 Equipment
- •4.3.4 Preparation
- •4.3.5 Technique
- •4.3.6 Complications
- •4.3.7 Advantages
- •4.3.8 Disadvantages
- •4.4.1 Thrombolytics
- •First-Generation Thrombolytic Agents
- •Second-Generation Thrombolytic Agents
- •Third-Generation Thrombolytic Agents
- •4.4.1.2 Contraindications
- •4.4.2 Anticoagulants
- •4.4.2.1 Unfractionated Heparin (UFH)
- •Mechanism
- •Indications
- •4.4.2.2 Low-Molecular-Weight Heparin (LMWH)
- •Mechanism
- •Indications
- •Special Considerations
- •4.4.2.3 Warfarin
- •Mechanism
- •Indications
- •Special Considerations
- •4.4.3 Antiplatelet Drugs
- •4.4.3.1 Aspirin
- •Mechanism
- •Recommendations
- •4.4.3.2 Clopidogrel
- •Mechanism
- •Recommendations
- •4.4.3.3 Glycoprotein IIb/IIIa Inhibitors (GPI)
- •Mechanism
- •Recommendations
- •4.4.4 Vasodilators
- •4.4.4.1 Nitroglycerine
- •Mechanism
- •Indications
- •4.4.4.2 Verapamil
- •Mechanism
- •Indications
- •Contraindications
- •Complications
- •4.4.5 Vasoconstrictors
- •4.4.5.1 Mechanism
- •4.4.5.3 Indication
- •4.4.6 Prothrombotics
- •4.4.6.1 Mechanism
- •4.4.6.3 Indications
- •4.4.6.5 Special Considerations
- •5.1 Introduction
- •5.2 Pre-procedure Tasks
- •5.2.4 Pre-anesthetic Evaluation
- •5.3 Anesthesia Techniques
- •5.3.1 Local Anesthesia
- •5.4 Pediatric IR Procedures
- •5.5 Anesthesia Considerations
- •5.11 Conclusion
- •References
- •6.1 Introduction
- •6.3 Pre-procedural Workup
- •6.3.1 Prothrombin Time (PT-INR)
- •6.3.3 Viscoelastic Tests
- •6.4.1 Procedure-Related Bleeding Risk
- •6.5.1 Chronic Liver Disease
- •6.5.2 Chronic Kidney Disease
- •6.5.3 Thrombocytopenia
- •6.5.4 Disseminated Intravascular Coagulation (DIC)
- •6.5.5 Malignancy
- •6.6 Bridge Therapy
- •6.7 Deep Vein Thrombosis (DVT)
- •6.8 Atrial Fibrillation (AF)
- •6.9 Coronary Stents
- •6.10 Conclusion
- •References
- •7.1 Introduction
- •7.4 Embolic Agent Selection
- •7.5.1 Gelfoam Embolization
- •7.5.2 Coil Embolization
- •7.5.3 Amplatzer Vascular Plug Embolization
- •7.5.4 Glue Embolization
- •7.6 Clinical Applications
- •7.6.1.1 Endovascular Approach
- •Parent Artery Preservation [16, 17]
- •Stent or Balloon-Assisted Coiling [20, 21]
- •Multi-Layered Flow-Diverting Stents [22]
- •7.6.1.2 Parent Artery Occlusion
- •Sandwich Technique [19–22]
- •7.6.1.3 Percutaneous Approach [16, 17, 24, 25]
- •7.6.2 Tumoral Embolization
- •7.6.3 AVM Embolization
- •7.6.5 Special Scenario
- •7.6.5.1 Provocative Angiography
- •7.6.5.2 Lower GI Bleeding
- •7.6.5.3 Hepatic Artery Aneurysm
- •7.6.5.4 Renal Artery Aneurysm (RAA)
- •7.7 Newer Embolizations
- •7.7.1 Genicular Artery Embolization
- •7.8 Conclusion
- •References
- •8.1 Introduction
- •8.2 Puncture Needles
- •8.3 Guidewires
- •8.4 Sheath System
- •8.5 Catheters
- •8.6 Microcatheters
- •8.7 Embolizing Agents
- •8.7.1 Gelatin Foam
- •8.7.2 Autologous Blood Clot
- •8.7.3 Thrombin
- •8.7.4 Coils
- •8.7.5 Vascular Plugs
- •8.7.6 Particulate Agents
- •8.7.7 Liquid Embolic Agents
- •8.8 Detachable Balloons
- •References
- •9.1 Introduction
- •9.2 Balloons
- •9.2.1 Basics
- •9.2.7 Balloon Ratings
- •9.2.11 Balloon Catheter Design
- •9.2.13 Complications
- •9.2.14 Occlusion Balloons
- •9.2.15 Angioplasty–Pearls
- •9.3 Stents
- •9.3.4 Raw Material Form
- •9.3.5 Fabrication
- •9.3.6 Geometry
- •9.3.7 Additions
- •9.3.8 Drug-Eluting Stents
- •9.3.10.1 Arterial Indications
- •9.3.10.2 Venous Indications
- •9.3.10.3 Non-vascular Indications
- •9.3.11 Uncovered vs. Covered (PTFE) SEMS
- •9.3.12 Stent Grafts
- •References
- •10: Vascular Access
- •10.1 Introduction
- •10.2 Indications
- •10.3 Hardware
- •10.3.1 Intravenous Cannula
- •10.3.2 Puncture Needle
- •10.3.3 Arterial Access Sheath
- •10.4 Local Anesthesia
- •10.6 General Considerations Before Procedure
- •10.7 Arterial Access
- •10.7.2 Arterial Access Sites
- •10.7.2.1 Common Femoral Artery
- •10.7.2.2 High Brachial or Axillary Artery
- •10.7.2.3 Radial Artery
- •10.7.2.4 Pedal Access [3]
- •10.7.2.5 Others
- •10.8 Post-procedure Care
- •10.8.1 Manual Compression
- •10.8.2 Vascular Closure Devices (VCD)
- •10.9 Complications [5–8]
- •10.10 Venous Access
- •10.10.1 Common Femoral Vein
- •10.10.2 Internal Jugular Vein
- •10.10.3 Subclavian Vein Access
- •10.10.4 Upper Extremity Vein Access
- •10.11 Conclusion
- •References
- •11: Neurointerventions Including Aneurysm Interventions
- •11.1 Introduction
- •11.2 Neurovascular Interventions
- •11.3.1 Introduction
- •11.3.3 Clinical Presentation
- •11.3.8 Endovascular Techniques
- •11.3.9 General Technical Guidelines
- •11.3.10 Simple Coiling
- •11.3.11 Balloon-Assisted Coiling
- •11.3.12 Stent-Assisted Coiling
- •11.3.13 Flow Diverter/Braided Stents
- •11.3.14 Stent Graft
- •11.3.15 Parent Artery Occlusion
- •11.3.16 Endosaccular Devices
- •11.4.1 Pathophysiology
- •References
- •12.1 Introduction
- •12.4 Thrombectomy Techniques
- •12.5 Aspiration Technique
- •12.5.1 Stentriever Technique
- •12.6 Combination Technique
- •12.7 Balloon Guide Catheters (BGC)
- •12.8 Special Situations
- •12.8.1 Posterior Circulation Stroke
- •12.8.2 Tandem Occlusions
- •12.8.3 Intracranial Atherosclerotic Disease (ICAD)
- •12.8.4 Medium Vessel Occlusions (MeVO)
- •12.9 Complications
- •12.10 Immediate Post-procedure Care
- •References
- •13.1 Introduction
- •13.2 Brain AVMs
- •13.2.1 Introduction
- •13.2.2 Epidemiology
- •Embolic Agents
- •Embolization Techniques
- •Embolization by Copolymers: Technical Aspects
- •13.3 Intracranial Dural Arterio-Venous Fistulas (DAVFs)
- •13.4 VGAM
- •13.5 Spinal Vascular Malformations
- •13.5.1 Introduction
- •13.5.2 Anatomy
- •13.5.4.3 Spinal Epidural AVMs
- •13.5.4.4 Metameric AVMs
- •References
- •14: Other Neurointerventions
- •14.1 Introduction
- •14.2 Direct CCF
- •14.2.2 Treatment
- •14.3 Epistaxis
- •14.4 Neck Vessel Pathologies
- •14.4.2 Etiopathogenesis
- •14.4.3 Clinical Presentation
- •14.4.4 Management
- •References
- •15.1 Introduction
- •15.4.2 Embolization Agents
- •15.5 Conclusion
- •References
- •16: Carotid Artery Interventions
- •16.1 Introduction
- •16.2.1 Imaging
- •16.2.2.1 Symptomatic Carotid Artery Stenosis
- •16.2.2.2 Asymptomatic Carotid Artery Stenosis
- •16.2.3 Best Medical Therapy
- •16.3 Carotid Artery Stenting
- •16.3.1 Preprocedure
- •16.3.2 Hardware
- •16.3.2.1 Procedure
- •16.5 Complications
- •16.5.1 Early Complications
- •16.5.2 Late Complications
- •16.6 Internal Carotid Artery Stenting
- •16.7 Conclusion
- •References
- •18.1 Introduction
- •18.2 Anatomical Considerations
- •18.3 Aortic Dissection
- •18.3.1 Introduction
- •18.3.2.3 Natural History
- •18.3.2.4 Imaging Options
- •18.3.2.6 Conventional Management Plan
- •18.4 Aortic Aneurysms
- •18.4.1 Overview
- •18.4.4 Thoraco-Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm
- •18.4.5 Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm (AAA)
- •18.4.5.3 Endovascular Intervention
- •18.4.6.1 Epidemiology
- •18.4.6.3 Pathophysiology
- •18.4.7 PAU
- •18.4.7.1 Imaging
- •18.4.7.2 Prognosis
- •18.4.7.3 Management
- •18.4.8 PAU
- •18.5.1 Access Site
- •18.5.2 Procedure
- •18.5.3 Post-Procedure Care
- •18.5.4 Follow-Up Imaging
- •18.6.1 Device-Related Complications
- •18.6.2 Systemic Complications
- •18.7 Endoleaks
- •References
- •19: Vascular Thoracic Interventions
- •19.1 Introduction
- •19.2 Bronchial Artery Embolization (BAE)
- •19.2.1.3 Pre-Procedure Evaluation
- •19.2.2 Bronchoscopy
- •19.2.2.1 Technique
- •19.2.2.2 Post-Procedure Care
- •19.2.2.3 Complications
- •19.3 Pulmonary Artery Pseudoaneurysm (PAPA)/Pulmonary AVM (PAVM) Embolization
- •19.3.1 Pre-Procedure Evaluation
- •19.3.1.2 Technique
- •19.3.2 Post-Procedure Care
- •19.3.3 Complications
- •19.4.1 Pre-Procedure Evaluation
- •19.4.2 Technique
- •19.4.3 Complications
- •19.4.4 Post-Procedure Follow-Up
- •19.5 Thoracic Duct Interventions
- •19.5.1 Pre-Procedure Evaluation
- •19.5.2 Lymphangiography Technique
- •19.5.3 Thoracic Duct Embolization Technique
- •19.5.4 Complications
- •19.5.4.2 Central Lymphatic Access Complications
- •References
- •20.1 Introduction
- •20.2 Pulmonary Embolism
- •20.2.3 Pulmonary Angiography
- •20.2.3.1 Technique
- •20.2.3.2 Post-Procedure Care
- •20.2.3.3 Complications
- •20.2.4.1 Intravenous Thrombolysis
- •20.2.4.2 Catheter-Directed Thrombolysis
- •20.2.4.3 Mechanical Thrombectomy
- •Rheolytic Thrombectomy Devices
- •Aspiration Thrombectomy Devices
- •20.3.1 Clinical Manifestations [16, 17]
- •20.3.3 Radiological Findings
- •20.3.4 Endovascular Management
- •20.3.4.1 Pre-Procedure Evaluation
- •20.3.4.2 Technique
- •20.3.4.3 Post-Procedure Care
- •20.3.4.5 Current Evidence
- •20.4 Pulmonary Artery Aneurysm
- •20.4.1 Endovascular Management
- •20.4.1.1 Technique
- •References
- •21: Hepatic Arterial Interventions
- •21.1 Introduction
- •21.2 Hepatic Arterial Anatomy
- •21.2.1 Normal Celiac Anatomy
- •21.2.2 Normal Hepatic Artery Anatomy
- •21.2.3 Variant Anatomies
- •21.3.1.2 Contraindications
- •21.3.1.3 Patient Selection
- •21.3.1.4 Patient Preparation
- •21.3.1.6 Response Evaluation
- •21.3.1.7 TACE Failure
- •21.3.1.8 TACE Discontinuation
- •21.3.1.9 Complications
- •21.3.2 Transarterial Radioembolization (TARE)
- •21.3.2.2 Contraindications [24]
- •21.3.2.3 Agents Used
- •21.3.2.4 First Visit (Planning)
- •21.3.2.5 Second Visit (Microsphere Injection)
- •21.3.2.6 Complications
- •21.3.3 Transarterial Bland Embolization (TAE)
- •21.3.4 Hepatic Artery Infusion Chemotherapy (HAIC)
- •21.4.1 Neuroendocrine Liver Metastasis (NELM)
- •21.4.2 Other Liver Metastases
- •21.4.3 Intrahepatic Cholangiocarcinoma (IHCC)
- •21.4.4 Benign Liver Tumors
- •21.4.4.1 Hemangiomas
- •21.4.4.2 Focal Nodular Hyperplasia
- •21.4.4.3 Hepatocellular Adenoma
- •21.4.4.4 Polycystic Liver Disease
- •21.8 Hepatic Parenchyma Repopulation
- •References
- •22.1 Introduction
- •22.2 Transjugular Liver Biopsy (TJLB)
- •22.2.1 Patient Preparation
- •22.2.2 Procedure
- •22.2.3 Post-Procedural Care
- •22.2.4 Complications
- •22.3 Transjugular Intrahepatic Portosystemic Shunt (TIPS)
- •22.3.3 Pre-Procedural Evaluation [12–14]
- •22.3.4 Technique
- •22.3.5 Post-Procedural Care
- •22.3.6.1 Extrahepatic Portal Vein Puncture [18, 19]
- •22.3.6.2 Hepatic Artery Injury [18–20]
- •22.3.7 Discussion
- •22.4 Balloon-Occluded Retrograde Transvenous Obliteration (BRTO)
- •22.4.1 Indications and Contraindications of BRTO
- •22.4.2 Pre-Procedural Evaluation
- •22.4.3 Requirements
- •22.4.4 Sclerosants
- •22.4.5 Relevant Anatomy
- •22.4.6 Techniques
- •22.4.8 Discussion
- •22.5 Portal Vein Thrombosis (PVT)
- •22.6.2 HV/IVC Stenting
- •22.6.3 Tips/Dips
- •22.6.4 HV/IVC Thrombolysis
- •22.6.5 Discussion
- •22.7 Portal Vein Embolization
- •22.7.5 Pre-Procedural Evaluation
- •22.7.6 Techniques
- •22.7.7 Embolizing Materials
- •22.7.8 Hypertrophy Response
- •22.7.11 Discussion
- •22.8 Transjugular Kidney Biopsy (TJKB)
- •22.8.1 Indications
- •22.8.2 Rationale
- •22.8.3 Pre-Procedural Workup
- •22.8.4 Techniques
- •22.9 IVC Filter
- •22.9.2 Patient Preparation
- •22.9.4 Procedure
- •22.9.5 Complications [98, 102]
- •References
- •23.1 Introduction
- •23.2 Anatomy
- •23.2.1 Arterial Anatomy
- •23.2.2 Venous Anatomy
- •23.3 Arterial Interventions
- •23.3.1 Renovascular Hypertension
- •23.3.2 Atherosclerotic Renal Artery Stenosis
- •23.3.3 Non-atherosclerotic RAS
- •23.3.4 Takayasu Arteritis (TA)
- •23.3.5 Fibromuscular Dysplasia (FMD)
- •23.5.2.1 Preprocedural Evaluation
- •23.5.2.2 Preprocedural Instructions
- •23.5.2.3 Procedure
- •23.5.2.4 Angiography
- •23.5.2.5 Balloon Angioplasty
- •23.5.2.6 Cutting Balloon Angioplasty
- •23.5.2.7 Stenting
- •23.5.2.9 Post-Procedural Care
- •23.5.2.10 Complications
- •23.6.1 Procedure
- •23.7 Renal Artery Aneurysms (RAAs)
- •23.8.1 Etiology
- •23.8.2 Clinical Presentation
- •23.8.3 Endovascular Management
- •23.9.1 Angiomyolipoma
- •23.9.2 Renal Cell Carcinoma (RCC)
- •23.10 Venous Interventions
- •23.10.1 Nutcracker Syndrome (NCS)
- •23.10.1.1 Diagnosis
- •23.10.1.2 Management
- •23.10.1.3 Endovascular Management
- •23.10.1.4 Procedure
- •23.10.1.5 Complications
- •23.10.2 Renal Vein Thrombosis
- •23.10.2.1 Clinical Presentation
- •23.10.2.2 Management
- •23.10.2.4 Procedure
- •References
- •24.1 Introduction
- •24.2 Relevant Anatomy
- •24.3 Mesenteric Ischemia
- •24.3.1 Clinical Features
- •24.3.2 Imaging
- •24.3.3 Treatment
- •24.3.3.2 Intra-Arterial Thrombolysis
- •24.3.3.3 Mechanical Thrombectomy
- •24.4 Gastrointestinal Hemorrhage
- •24.4.1 Clinical Features
- •24.4.2 Endoscopy
- •24.4.3 Imaging
- •24.4.4.2 Complications
- •24.5 Bariatric Embolization
- •24.5.1 Technique
- •References
- •25.1 Introduction
- •25.2 Uterine Artery Embolization (UAE)
- •25.2.1 Indications [1, 2]
- •25.2.2 Contraindications [1, 2]
- •25.2.3 Relevant Vascular Anatomy [2]
- •25.2.4 Preprocedural Evaluation
- •25.2.5 Technique
- •25.2.6 Post-Procedural Care
- •25.2.7 Complications
- •25.2.8 Outcome
- •25.3 Prostatic Artery Embolization (PAE)
- •25.3.1 Rationale Behind PAE
- •25.3.2 Indications [17, 18]
- •25.3.3 Contraindications [18]
- •25.3.4 Preprocedural Evaluation [17]
- •25.3.5 Clinical Assessment
- •25.3.7 Imaging
- •25.3.7.1 Ultrasonography (USG)
- •25.3.7.2 Computed Tomography (CT)
- •25.3.7.3 Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
- •25.3.9 Relevant Vascular Anatomy
- •25.3.10 Technique
- •25.3.11 Complications
- •25.3.12 Post-Procedural Follow-Up
- •25.3.13 Outcome
- •25.4 Varicocele Embolization
- •25.4.1 Indications [22, 26]
- •25.4.4 Relevant Vascular Anatomy
- •25.4.5 Preprocedural Evaluation [23, 25]
- •25.4.6 Technique
- •25.4.6.2 Venous Access [25, 27, 28]
- •25.4.6.3 Venography [25, 27]
- •25.4.6.4 Embolization [25, 27, 29–31]
- •25.4.7 Post-Procedural Care
- •25.4.8 Complications
- •25.4.9 Outcome
- •25.5 Pelvic Congestion Syndrome
- •25.5.1 Indication [38]
- •25.5.2 Contraindications [38]
- •25.5.3 Preprocedural Evaluation
- •25.5.4 Relevant Vascular Anatomy
- •25.5.5 Technique
- •25.5.6 Post-Procedural Care
- •25.5.7 Complications
- •25.5.8 Outcome
- •25.6 Penile Angiography
- •25.6.1 Penile Vascular Anatomy
- •25.6.2 Technique
- •25.6.3 Complications
- •25.6.4 Outcome
- •References
- •26.2 Peripheral Arterial Disease (PAD)
- •26.2.1 Introduction
- •26.2.5.1 Non-imaging/Functional Modalities
- •26.2.5.2 Imaging Evaluation
- •26.2.6 Management Strategies
- •26.2.6.3 Revascularization Strategies
- •26.3.2 Preprocedural Evaluation
- •26.3.5 Complications
- •26.3.6 Stenting
- •26.3.7 Post-Procedure
- •26.5 Recent Advances
- •26.5.2 Drug-Eluting Technology
- •26.5.3 Bioresorbable Stents
- •26.5.6 Pedal Arch Revascularization
- •26.5.7 Percutaneous Deep Vein Arterialization (DVA)
- •26.6 Acute Limb Ischemia
- •26.7 Popliteal Artery Entrapment Syndrome (PAES)
- •26.8 Genicular Artery Embolization (GAE)
- •References
- •27.1 Introduction
- •27.2 Relevant Anatomy
- •27.3 Varicose Veins
- •27.3.1 Clinical Evaluation
- •27.3.2 Physical Examination
- •27.3.3 Sonological Evaluation
- •27.3.3.1 Duplex Sonographical Evaluation
- •27.3.5.1 Thermal Ablation
- •Endovenous Laser Ablation
- •Radiofrequency Ablation
- •Endovenous Steam Ablation
- •27.3.5.2 Non-thermal Ablative Methods
- •Foam Sclerotherapy
- •Cyanoacrylate Closure (CAC)
- •Mechanochemical Ablation (MOCA)
- •Cryosclerosis
- •27.4 Deep Vein Thrombosis
- •27.4.1 Diagnosis
- •27.4.1.1 Pre-Test Probability
- •27.4.1.2 D-Dimer Assessment
- •27.4.1.3 Radiological Evaluation
- •27.4.5.1 Catheter-Directed Thrombolysis
- •Single-Session (Second-Generation) Pharmacomechanical Catheter-Directed Thrombolysis
- •27.5.1 Pulmonary Embolism (PE)
- •27.5.2 Clinical Features
- •27.5.3 Imaging Evaluation
- •27.5.4 Management
- •27.5.5 Endovascular Techniques
- •References
- •28.1 Introduction
- •28.3.2 Imaging Evaluation
- •28.4 Endovascular Management
- •28.4.1 Nonmature Fistulas
- •28.4.3 Acute Thrombosis
- •28.5 Central Venous Stenosis
- •28.7 Pseudoaneurysm
- •References
- •29.1 Introduction
- •29.2 Low-Flow Vascular Malformations
- •29.2.1.1 Pre-procedural Requirements
- •29.2.1.2 Procedure
- •29.2.1.3 Post-procedure Care
- •Ethanol
- •Detergent Sclerosant
- •Bleomycin
- •Doxycycline
- •OK-432 (Picibanil)
- •29.2.1.5 Complications
- •29.3 High-Flow Vascular Malformations
- •29.3.1.1 Pre-procedure Evaluation
- •29.3.1.2 Technique
- •29.3.1.3 Complications
- •29.4 Fibro-Adipose Vascular Anomaly (FAVA)
- •29.5 Conclusion
- •References
- •30.1 Introduction
- •30.2 Splenic Injuries
- •30.2.2 Technique
- •30.2.3 Patient Preparation
- •30.2.4 Procedure
- •30.2.5 Embolizing Agent
- •30.2.6 Post-procedural Care
- •30.2.7 Complication
- •30.3 Hepatic Injury
- •30.3.1 Background
- •30.3.2 Indication
- •30.3.3 Technique
- •30.3.4 Patient Preparation
- •30.3.6 Embolization Agent
- •30.3.7 Post-procedural Care
- •30.3.8 Complications
- •30.4 Peripheral Vascular Injuries (PVI)
- •30.4.1 Background
- •30.4.2 Indication
- •30.4.3 Patient Preparation
- •30.4.5 Embolization Agent
- •30.4.6 Post-procedural Care
- •30.4.7 Complications
- •30.5 Pelvic Trauma
- •30.5.1 Background
- •30.5.2 Indication
- •30.5.3 Technique
- •30.5.4 Patient Preparation
- •30.5.6 Embolization Agent
- •30.5.7 Complications
- •30.6 Maxillofacial Injury (MFI)
- •30.6.1 Background
- •30.6.2 Indication
- •30.6.3 Technique
- •30.6.4 Patient Preparation
- •30.6.6 Embolization Agent
- •30.6.7 Complications
- •30.7 Conclusion
- •References
- •31.1 Introduction
- •31.2 Inferior Petrosal Sinus Sampling
- •31.2.2 Cushing Syndrome (CS)
- •31.2.4 Pre-Procedure Instructions
- •31.2.5 Minimum Hardware Required
- •31.2.7 Result Interpretation
- •31.3 Adrenal Venous Sampling
- •31.3.1 Adrenal Gland Anatomy
- •31.3.2 Vascular Anatomy
- •31.3.3 Primary Hyperaldosteronism
- •31.3.5 Pre-Procedure Instructions
- •31.3.6 Minimum Hardware Required
- •31.3.8 Result Interpretation
- •31.4 Pancreatic Venous Sampling
- •31.4.1 Pancreatic Venous Anatomy
- •31.4.3 Pancreatic Neuroendocrine Tumors
- •31.4.4 Pre-Procedure Instructions
- •31.4.5 Minimum Hardware Required
- •31.4.7 Result Interpretation
- •31.5 Ovarian Venous Sampling
- •31.5.1 Anatomy
- •31.5.2 Hyperandrogenism
- •31.5.3 Pre-Procedure Instructions
- •31.5.4 Minimum Hardware Required
- •31.5.6 Result Interpretation
- •31.6.1 Anatomy
- •31.6.2 Pre-Procedure Instructions
- •31.6.3 Minimum Hardware Required
- •31.6.4 Procedure
- •31.6.5 Result Interpretation
- •31.7.1 Pre-Procedure Instructions
- •31.7.2 Minimum Hardware Required
- •31.7.3 Procedure
- •31.7.4 Result Interpretation
- •31.8 Conclusion
- •References
- •32.1 Introduction
- •32.2 Priapism
- •32.3 Erectile Dysfunction
- •32.3.2 Epidemiology
- •32.3.3 Aetiology
- •32.3.4 Pathophysiology
- •32.3.6 Imaging
- •32.3.7 Relevant Anatomy
- •32.3.7.2 Venous Anatomy
- •32.3.8 Penile Doppler
- •32.4.1 Indications
- •32.4.2 Contraindications
- •32.4.3 Equipment
- •32.4.4 Technical Aspects
- •32.4.5 Procedure Timing
- •32.4.6 Outcomes
- •32.4.7 Complications
- •32.4.8 Post-Procedural Care
- •32.5.1 Indications
- •32.5.2 Contraindications
- •32.5.3 Equipment
- •32.5.4 Technical Aspects
- •32.5.5 Outcomes
- •32.5.6 Complications
- •32.6.1 Indications
- •32.6.2 Contraindications
- •32.6.3 Equipment
- •32.6.4 Procedural Planning
- •32.6.5 Technical Aspects
- •32.6.6 Outcomes
- •32.6.7 Complications
- •32.7 Conclusion
- •References
- •33: Image-Guided Biopsy
- •33.1 Introduction
- •33.2 Biopsy Devices
- •33.3 Pre-Procedural Evaluation
- •33.4 Ultrasound-Guided Biopsy
- •33.5 CT-Guided Biopsy
- •33.6 MRI-Guided Biopsy
- •33.7.2 Breast
- •33.7.3 Lung
- •33.7.4 Mediastinum
- •33.7.5 Liver
- •33.7.6 Gallbladder
- •33.7.7 Spleen
- •33.7.8 Bowel
- •33.7.9 Retroperitoneum
- •33.7.11 Pelvis
- •33.7.12 Spine
- •33.7.13 Extremities
- •33.8 Conclusion
- •References
- •34: Image-Guided Drainage Procedures
- •34.1 Introduction
- •34.2 Etiology
- •34.4 Contraindications
- •34.5 Imaging Modalities
- •34.6 Pre-Procedure Evaluation
- •34.8 Post-Procedure Care
- •34.9 Complications
- •34.10.1 Postoperative Fluid Collection
- •34.10.2 Ascites
- •34.10.3 Liver Abscess
- •34.10.4 Peripancreatic Fluid Collection
- •34.10.5 Splenic Abscess
- •34.10.6 Appendicitis
- •34.10.8 Renal Abscess
- •34.10.9 Pelvic Abscess
- •34.10.10 Prostatic Abscess
- •34.11 Summary
- •References
- •35: Ablation Techniques
- •35.1 Introduction
- •35.2 Chemical Ablation
- •35.3 Thermal Ablation Techniques
- •35.3.1 Radiofrequency Ablation
- •35.3.2 Microwave Ablation
- •35.3.3 Cryoablation
- •35.3.4 High-Intensity Focused Ultrasound
- •35.3.5 Laser Ablation
- •35.4 Non-thermal Ablation Techniques
- •35.4.1 Irreversible Electroporation
- •35.6.1 Liver
- •35.6.2 Kidney
- •35.6.3 Lung
- •35.6.4 Breast
- •35.6.5 Thyroid
- •35.6.6 Musculoskeletal System
- •35.6.7 Nerve Ablation
- •35.7 Conclusion
- •References
- •36.1 Introduction
- •36.3 CT-Guided Biopsy
- •36.3.2 Complications
- •36.3.3 Technical Approaches
- •36.3.4.3 Paramaxillary Approach
- •36.3.4.4 Submastoid Approach
- •36.3.4.5 Transoral Approach
- •36.3.5.1 Anterolateral Approach
- •36.3.5.2 Posterolateral Approach
- •36.3.5.3 Posterior Approach
- •36.4 Ultrasound-Guided Biopsy/FNAC
- •36.4.2.5 Carotid Space
- •36.7 Conclusion
- •References
- •37: Nonvascular Thoracic Interventions
- •37.1 Introduction
- •37.2 Thoracic Drainage Procedures
- •37.2.1 Pre-Procedure Evaluation
- •37.2.2 Imaging
- •37.3 Thoracocentesis
- •37.3.1 Indications
- •37.3.2 Relative Contraindications
- •37.3.4 Technique
- •37.4.1 Indications
- •37.4.2 Contraindications
- •37.4.3 Drain Size
- •37.4.5 Post-Insertion Care
- •37.5 Intrapleural Fibrinolytic Therapy
- •37.5.1 Catheter Removal
- •37.6 Practice Points
- •37.7 Indwelling Pleural Catheter Insertion
- •37.7.1 Duration
- •37.8.1 Procedure
- •37.8.2 Trocar Drainage
- •37.8.3 Seldinger Technique
- •37.8.4 Post-Procedure Follow-Up
- •37.8.5 Removal
- •37.9 Complications
- •37.9.1 Thoracentesis Related
- •37.9.2 Drainage Chest Tube Related
- •37.9.3 IPC Related
- •37.11.1 Pre-Procedure Evaluation
- •37.11.3 Technique
- •37.11.4 Post-Procedure Care
- •37.11.5 Complications [11, 14, 15]
- •37.12.1 Indications [11, 19]
- •37.12.2 Contraindications [11, 19]
- •37.12.3 Technique
- •37.12.4 Post-Procedure Care
- •37.12.5 Complications
- •References
- •38.1 Introduction
- •38.2 Biliary Anatomy
- •38.3 Biliary Obstruction
- •38.4 Percutaneous Transhepatic Biliary Drainage
- •38.4.2 Indications
- •38.4.3 Contraindications
- •38.4.4 Technique
- •38.4.5 Post-Procedure Care
- •38.4.6 Complications
- •38.5 Biliary Stenting
- •38.5.1 Indications
- •38.5.2 Technique
- •38.7 Intraluminal Procedures Through Percutaneous Biliary Access
- •38.7.1 Endobiliary Biopsy
- •38.7.2 Intraluminal Brachytherapy
- •38.7.3 Gallstone Extraction
- •38.8 Percutaneous Cholecystostomy
- •38.8.1 Indications
- •38.8.2 Technique
- •References
- •39.1 Introduction
- •39.2 Percutaneous Gastrostomy
- •39.2.1 Indications
- •39.2.2 Contraindications
- •39.2.3 Pre-procedural Work-Up
- •39.2.4 Technique
- •39.2.6 Pull-Type PRG
- •39.3 Percutaneous Jejunostomy
- •39.3.1 Indications
- •39.3.2 Technique
- •39.4 Percutaneous Cecostomy
- •39.4.1 Indications
- •39.4.2 Technique
- •39.4.3 Post-procedure Care
- •39.5.1 Technique
- •39.6.1 Technique
- •39.6.3 Malignant Tracheoesophageal Fistula Stenting
- •39.6.5 Complications
- •References
- •40.1 Introduction
- •40.2 Percutaneous Nephrostomy (PCN)
- •40.2.5 Post-procedure Care
- •40.4.3 Ureteroarterial Fistula
- •References
- •41.1 Introduction
- •41.2 Fallopian Tube Recanalization (FTR)
- •41.2.1 Technique
- •41.2.2 Complications
- •41.2.3 Results
- •41.3 Amniocentesis
- •41.3.1 Indications
- •41.3.2 Contraindications [7]
- •41.3.4 Technique
- •41.3.5 Complications
- •41.4 Chorionic Villous Sampling (CVS)
- •41.4.1 Indications
- •41.4.2 Contraindications
- •41.4.4 Technique
- •41.4.5 Complications
- •41.5.1 Indications [15–19]
- •41.5.2 Contraindications [20–23]
- •41.5.3 Technique [15, 23]
- •41.5.4 Complications [15, 23, 24]
- •41.5.5 Outcome [23]
- •41.6.1 Technique
- •41.6.2 Complications
- •41.7.1 Contraindications
- •41.7.2 Technique
- •41.7.3 Complications
- •41.8.1 Technique
- •41.8.2 Complications
- •41.9.1 Technique
- •41.9.2 Complications [28, 44, 45]
- •References
- •42.1 Introduction
- •42.2 Breast Biopsy
- •42.2.2 USG-Guided Biopsy [1, 2]
- •42.2.3 MG-Guided Biopsy [3, 4]
- •42.2.4 MRI-Guided Biopsy [1, 11–13]
- •42.2.5 Vacuum-Assisted Biopsy [1, 4, 14, 15, 16]

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Interventions ofthePulmonary Arteries
SanjeevKumar andGirishNatarajuKomalamma
20
Key Messages
1. Endovascular interventions play a major role in the management of massive and submassive pulmonary
embolism.
2. Prompt evaluation and management reduce the mortality
associated with pulmonary embolism.
3. Endovascular treatment options for pulmonary embolism
include catheter-directed thrombolysis and mechanical
thrombectomy.
4. A comprehensive evaluation of imaging studies is
required to determine the size, location, and characteristics of the pulmonary arteriovenous malformation
(PAVM) as part of a comprehensive preoperative planning process.
5. It is essential to select embolic agents, such as coils or
vascular plugs, based on PAVM size and characteristics.
6. The optimal occlusion technique entails positioning the
embolic agent as distally as possible, close to the arteriovenous connection, and employing techniques such as the
anchor or scaffold technique for effective placement.
7. Avoiding air entry into catheters, precise placement of
embolic agents to prevent nontarget embolization, and
contemplating antibiotic prophylaxis for infection prevention are measures that should be taken to minimize
complications.
lead to life-threatening complications. Also, they pose a
challenge to prompt diagnosis and their management.
Imaging plays a signicant role in diagnosing and planning
of management in pulmonary artery pathologies which
includes computed tomography and angiography. With high
risk for surgical management and availability and advances
in endovascular techniques, minimally invasive treatment of
these conditions is becoming the rst-line treatment strategy
and also an adjunct to surgical treatment. These endovascular techniques have proven to be safe and effective in treating
most of the conditions when performed by experienced interventionalists. In this chapter, we aim to provide a comprehensive overview of the various pulmonary artery pathologies
and their management strategies.
20.2 Pulmonary Embolism
Pulmonary embolism (PE) is a signicant global health concern with high morbidity and mortality. Each year, there are
around 600,000 reported cases of PE and approximately
100,000 to 180,000 PE-related deaths. It is important to note
that PE is a preventable cause of mortality, particularly in
hospitalized individuals [1, 2].
20.2.1 Risk Stratication
20.1 Introduction
The presentation of patients with acute PE can vary widely,
Pulmonary circulation is a high-ow and low-resistance system that circulates the entire right ventricular output at a
pressure of approximately one-fth of the systemic pressure.
Even though the incidence of pathologies involving pulmonary arteries like PAVM, pulmonary embolism, pulmonary
artery aneurysms, and pseudoaneurysms are low, they can
S. Kumar (*) · G. N. Komalamma
Department of Cardiovascular Radiology and Endovascular
Interventions, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Delhi, India
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2024
S. H. Chandrashekhara (ed.), Textbook of Interventional Radiology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-97-9601-4_20
ranging from sudden cardiac arrest or death to incidental
clots with no signicant impact on the heart or lungs. Around
40% of patients fall into the low-risk category, where
PE-related mortality and morbidity are minimal. In such
cases, standard management involves conservative treatment
with anticoagulation alone, although surveillance may be
considered for subsegmental PE with a low risk of clot recur-
rence and no deep vein thrombosis in the leg [3]. On the
other hand, patients who present with hypotension are cate-
gorized as high-risk or massive PE and require immediate
225

226
S. Kumar and G. N. Komalamma
intervention to reduce the risk of mortality through debulking and reperfusion therapy [4, 5].
Right ventricular (RV) strain is an important predictor
of impending hemodynamic instability in patients with
PE.Biomarkers such as troponin and natriuretic peptides
can indicate myocardial necrosis or RV strain respectively
[3]. Echocardiography is used to evaluate the RV dilation
or systolic dysfunction, tricuspid regurgitation, and interventricular septal bowing. Anticoagulation is the standard
treatment for hemodynamically stable patients diagnosed
with acute PE.CT scanning, commonly used for diagnosing PE, can provide information on certain parameters of
RV strain, particularly RV enlargement and straightening
of the interventricular septum. Additionally, specic electrocardiographic changes, such as T wave inversions in
early precordial leads, may indicate the presence of RV
strain [6, 7].
20.2.2 Pre-Procedure Evaluation
forPulmonary Artery Interventions
To assess the cardiopulmonary status of a patient suspected
of having PE, various steps should be taken. This includes
conducting a comprehensive evaluation of the patient’s
medical history, performing a physical examination, and
utilizing diagnostic tests. Although individual clinical and
laboratory parameters may lack specicity, the presence of
signicant manifestations indicative of PE can guide the
decision to proceed with further diagnostic studies. Several
assessments should be conducted during the evaluation
process. This includes reviewing chest radiographs and
electrocardiograms to rule out acute myocardial infarction
and arrhythmias, as well as to evaluate signs of right ventricular strain such as P-pulmonale, right-axis deviation,
right bundle branch block, or S1Q3T3 pattern. Other diagnostic tests, such as CT pulmonary angiography and right
heart pressure monitoring, can provide valuable information. Pulmonary capillary wedge pressure is particularly
useful in ruling out right-sided heart failure. Measurement
of right ventricular end-diastolic pressure and pulmonary
artery pressure can help determine the degree of pulmonary
hypertension. Additionally, it is important to check the
patient’s serum electrolyte levels, blood urea nitrogen, and
creatinine levels, coagulation parameters (partial thromboplastin time and prothrombin time), and platelet count.
Arrhythmias should be managed with prophylactic lidocaine administered intravenously (50–100mg), and consultation with a cardiologist may be necessary. During the
procedure, continuous cardiac monitoring is essential for
all patients. It is crucial to be prepared to place and activate
a transvenous pacer if the patient presents with a left bundle-branch block.
20.2.3 Pulmonary Angiography
20.2.3.1 Technique
• The choice of venous access for pulmonary angiography
is generally through the femoral veins, preferably on the
right side, as long as there is no evidence of iliofemoral
thrombosis. It is important to note that up to 14% of
patients undergoing pulmonary angiography may have a
thrombus in the inferior vena cava. In case of uncertainty,
it is recommended to perform a limited ultrasound of the
femoral veins before puncture and consider venography
of the pelvis and/or IVC to ensure safe access.
• Various catheters can be used for the procedure depending on the access site. Pre-shaped catheters like the
Grollman or pigtail catheters maneuvered with a tipdeecting wire can be utilized. For jugular or brachial
access, there are low-prole catheters available that can
enter the pulmonary artery without the need for a tipdeecting wire. A Swan-Ganz catheter can be used for
pressure measurements and possible super-selective balloon occlusion injections. If necessary, the Swan-Ganz
catheter can be exchanged over a wire for another diagnostic catheter, although this should be done promptly to
avoid arrhythmias when the endocardium is exposed to
the bare guidewire.
• Measurement of right heart pressures is essential during
pulmonary angiography. Approximately 30% of patients
undergoing the procedure can have pulmonary hypertension. The right ventricular end-diastolic pressure
(RVEDP) should be 20mm Hg or less, and the pulmonary
artery systolic pressure should be ≤70mm Hg. If these
pressures are higher, the mortality associated with pulmonary angiography is increased, estimated at around 2–3%.
In such cases, super-selective injection with balloon
occlusion technique and the use of non-ionic contrast
media are recommended as safety measures. These precautions become even more important if cardiac output is
determined to be below normal.
• Regarding the arteriographic technique, the choice of contrast agents is crucial. Non-ionic low osmolar contrast
agents are preferred and considered mandatory for patients
with elevated right-sided pressures. However, low-cost
alternative agents are acceptable when right- sided pressures are normal. The injection rates for selective arteriography of the right or left PA range from 30 to 50 mL at
15–25ml/s. Super-selective arteriography, guided by CT
pulmonary angiography, is particularly useful for patients
with pulmonary hypertension (RVEDP ≥20mm Hg). The
rate and volume of injection should be adjusted based on
the size of the region to be studied, typically ranging from
5 to 15mL per second for 2seconds. When balloon occlusion is involved, the total volume should not exceed 5 to
7mL, followed by rapid deation of the balloon.

20 Interventions ofthePulmonary Arteries
227
20.2.3.2 Post-Procedure Care
This includes carefully monitoring the patient’s condition,
ensuring appropriate pain management, and addressing any
potential complications that may arise. In cases where cardiac trauma is suspected during or after angiography, it is
essential to discontinue the administration of anticoagulants
and promptly transfer the patient to the cardiac intensive care
unit for specialized care. Cardiac trauma requires close monitoring and immediate intervention to prevent further
complications.
Arrhythmias, particularly frequent premature ventricular
contractions, should be promptly addressed. To manage
PVCs, a recommended approach is administering a bolus of
lidocaine intravenously via a catheter into the right atrium.
The total dose of lidocaine given may reach up to 100mg,
with an initial dose of 50mg. This intervention aims to regulate the heart rhythm.
20.2.3.3 Complications
Life-threatening complications are uncommon and typically
occur as a result of acute cor pulmonale in patients who
already have severe pulmonary hypertension and a failing
RV.These complications are rare but can include RV perforation, endocardial stain, signicant symptomatic arrhythmia, cardiopulmonary arrest, contrast reactions, and renal
dysfunction.
20.2.4 Treatment ofHigh-Risk Pulmonary
Embolism
20.2.4.1 Intravenous Thrombolysis
Risk stratication is crucial for determining the need for
early and aggressive intervention in patients with PE.Highrisk clinical ndings include hypotension (systolic BP
<90mm Hg or a drop of >40mm Hg), echocardiographic
evidence of RV strain, pulmonary hypertension, a diagnosis
of precapillary pulmonary hypertension (mean pulmonary
arterial pressure >20mm Hg with normal pulmonary artery
occlusion pressures), a widened arterial-alveolar O2 gradient
exceeding 50mm Hg, and clinically severe PE with contraindications to anticoagulation or thrombolytic therapy. The
indications for early and aggressive intervention include
patients presenting with shock or signs of systemic hypoperfusion caused by acute massive PE.Additionally, in cases of
submassive PE where there is right ventricular dysfunction
but no hemodynamic instability, the decision for intervention
is more controversial and subject to further discussion.
On the other hand, there are certain contraindications to
consider when considering intervention for PE. These
include active internal bleeding and/or disseminated intravascular coagulation; a recent history (within 3months) of
cerebrovascular accident; intracranial or intraspinal surgery
or trauma; the presence of intracranial neoplasm, arteriovenous malformation, or aneurysm; known bleeding diathesis
and/or an absolute contraindication to anticoagulation; and
severe, uncontrolled hypertension (which is a relative contraindication). These contraindications need to be taken into
account when determining the appropriateness of intervention strategies in PE patients.
Thrombolytic agents are administered through a peripheral IV line. During the administration of thrombolytic treatment, no heparin is given, and procedures involving vascular
access and blood draws should be avoided. Since the protocols are brief and the dosages are weight-based, mandatory
testing for brinogen, brin split products, and thrombin
time is not required. Studies have shown that peripheral IV
application is as effective as direct application into the main
pulmonary artery. The effective administration window for
thrombolytic therapy is typically 14 days. Streptokinase,
urokinase (UK), and tissue plasminogen activator (TPA)
(Alteplase) are FDA-approved thrombolytic agents for the
treatment of massive PE.The use of thrombolytic therapy
offers several benets over heparin treatment alone, including faster resolution of thrombus, signicant reduction in
pulmonary hypertension within 2 hours of treatment,
improved pulmonary perfusion within 24hours, and a potential reduction in mortality for patients in shock due to massive PE.Additionally, in patients with acute PE and right
ventricular dysfunction on echocardiography but normal
systemic arterial pressure, thrombolytic therapy may reduce
mortality and the incidence of recurrent pulmonary embolism, although this remains a topic of debate. However,
thrombolytic therapy does not reduce mortality or recurrent
PE in hemodynamically stable patients. It may have a positive impact on the hemodynamic response to exercise [8–10].
20.2.4.2 Catheter-Directed Thrombolysis
The localized delivery of thrombolytic agents, known as
catheter-directed thrombolysis (CDT), has gained increasing interest in the medical eld. By navigating a catheter
through an obstructive pulmonary artery thrombus, CDT
creates a pathway for drug delivery and enhances the exposure of the thrombus to the thrombolytic agent. This
approach addresses a limitation of peripherally infused systemic thrombolysis, where blood tends to be redirected
towards unaffected pulmonary artery segments rather than
those with thrombus. In vitro and invivo models have demonstrated the presence of eddy currents in the main pulmonary arteries, which divert blood ow away from arteries
occluded by thrombus [11, 12].
CDT holds promise in potentially improving thrombolytic efcacy while offering an improved safety prole with
reduced instances of major and intracranial hemorrhage.
This is attributed to the localized administration and the
potential for lower thrombolytic dosages compared to IV

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S. Kumar and G. N. Komalamma
thrombolysis. However, there is a lack of controlled studies
directly comparing CDT to IV thrombolysis in the treatment
of PE.Existing investigations and registries have primarily
compared CDF with isolated anticoagulation, providing limited evidence of its effectiveness [13–15].
Among the CDT catheters, Uni-Fuse (Angiodynamics
Inc., Latham, NY) and Cragg-McNamara (ev3 Inc.,
Plymouth, MN) catheters are most commonly used. These
catheters have received approval from the Food and Drug
Administration (FDA) for the infusion of thrombolytics into
the peripheral vasculature, although they do not have a specic indication for PE.Typically, operators employ 4- or 5-F
catheters with an infusion length of 5–10cm, depending on
the extent of clot burden visualized on concurrent pulmonary
angiography or pre-procedure CT.Limited clinical outcome
data exist regarding the specic utilization of these products
for the treatment of PE.
Urokinase is used as a loading dose of 2200IU/kg, followed by continuous infusion of 2200 IU kg/h for up to
24hours, with the concomitant use of heparin at a rate of
500units per hour [11]. Most centers use alteplase as a bolus
dose of 2–5 mg followed by a continuous infusion of
0.5–2.0mg/h for less than 24hours. Monteplase (Cleactor,
Eisai Medical Research, Tokyo, Japan) is a new drug that is
very effective in patients with acute PE and hemodynamic
instability with good results at doses of 13,750 to 27,500IU
per kg [14].
20.2.4.3 Mechanical Thrombectomy
Surgical embolectomy has been conventionally done in
unstable patients with fulminant PE who have failed or have
contraindications to thrombolytic therapy. However, surgical
treatment has high morbidity and mortality (29–58%) as
shown in a meta-analysis of 597 patients undergoing pulmonary embolectomy [11]. This led to the advent of various
techniques of endovascular thrombectomy. Indications for
mechanical clot fragmentation include patients with highrisk PE who cannot be treated with IV or catheter-directed
thrombolysis (Figs.20.1 and 20.2). Advantages of clot fragmentation include decreased pulmonary vascular resistance,
improved perfusion, and subsequent increased efcacy of
catheter-directed thrombolysis as there is increased surface
area due to fragmentation [11]. Thrombectomy devices can
be classied into:
Fig. 20.1 Pulmonary
embolism: (a) Axial CT
image showing hypodense
thrombus in LPA extending
into the left upper lobe
segmental branch; (b) axial
CT image showing dilated
RA and RV; (c) sagittal CT
image showing dilated RV
with straightening of
interventricular septum; (d)
axial CT MIP image showing
dilated IVC and hepatic veins
with reux of contrast

bc
20 Interventions ofthePulmonary Arteries
a
229
Fig. 20.2 Pulmonary embolism: (a) DSA image showing lling defect
(thrombus) in LPA extending into left upper lobe segmental artery with
reduced ow; (b) mechanical thrombectomy using PENUMBRA cath-
Devices that Fragment theThrombus Without
Removal
(a) Arrow-Trerotola percutaneous thrombolytic device
(Arrow International, Reading, PA).
(b) Pigtail fragmentation device (William Cook Europe,
Bjaeverskov, Denmark): This is a manually rotatable
special 5F pigtail catheter.
(c) Rotational bidirectional thrombectomy (ROBOT): A
standard 5F Pigtail catheter for angiography is used as a
fragmentation device and is bidirectionally rotated
manually.
Rheolytic Thrombectomy Devices
These devices fragment and remove the emboli. But they
cause hemolysis. They have been shown to have a high clinical success rate of 92% [15].
(a) Helix Clot Buster thrombectomy device (Microvena,
White Bear Lake, MN).
(b) AngioJet Rapid thrombectomy system (Possis Medical,
Minneapolis, MN): This uses a high-velocity saline
solution jet that causes fragmentation of the thrombus
following which it can be aspirated. However, the
AngioJet device produces bradyarrhythmia and death
when used in the pulmonary arteries and carries an FDA
black box warning.
(c) Cordis Hydrolyser hydrodynamic thrombectomy cathe-
ter (Cordis, Miami Lakes, FL).
(d) Oasis Thrombectomy System (Boston Scientic, Natick,
MA).
(e) The EndoWave System (EKOS, Bothell, WA) uses a
low-intensity, high-frequency ultrasound combined with
thrombolytic infusion.
eter; (c) post mechanical thrombectomy DSA run showing resolution of
lling defect with establishment of ow in LPA and left upper lobe
pulmonary arteries
Aspiration Thrombectomy Devices
Thrombus is removed using mechanical aspiration by multiple catheter passes.
(a) Greeneld pulmonary embolectomy catheter (Boston
Scientic, Natick, MA).
(b) Guiding catheter: It is simple and cost-effective. A cath-
eter with side holes can be used with a 60ml syringe for
aspiration.
(c) Suction catheter.
(d) ASPIREX (Straub Medical, Wangs, Switzerland): 8 F
mechanical thrombus aspiration device with a rotating
motor at the tip which macerates and removes the
thrombus.
(e) AngioVac (AngioDynamics, Albany, NY) is a large-bore
(22F) cannula approved by the FDA.
Shaped-Diagnostic Catheters andPercutaneous
Transluminal Angioplasty Balloon Catheters
They can be used to fragment the thrombus and can be combined with catheter-directed or systemic thrombolysis [11].
20.3 Pulmonary Arteriovenous
Malformations
Pulmonary arteriovenous malformations (PAVMs) involve
abnormal communication between arteries and veins with
associated lung abnormalities. A typical AVM consists of
feeding arteries, nidus, and drainage veins. However, nidus is
often absent in pulmonary AVMs.
PAVMs are often found in association with hereditary
hemorrhagic telangiectasia (HHT), also known as Osler-

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S. Kumar and G. N. Komalamma
Weber- Rendu syndrome, occurring in 56–97% of affected
individuals [16–18]. Notably, in the context of HHT, these
malformations tend to be multiple.
20.3.1 Clinical Manifestations [16, 17]
Due to right-to-left shunting: Arterial hypoxemia (dyspnea,
fatigue, cyanosis, clubbing, and rarely polycythemia but can
also be asymptomatic), paradoxical embolization (which
occurs commonly in the brain with risk of thromboembolic
stroke and transient ischemic attack in 11–55% of patients
and bacterial embolic brain abscess in 5–25%, high-output
heart failure (most commonly in neonates). Hemoptysis and
hemothorax occur in 3–18% of cases when thin-walled
PAVMs rupture.
The risk of PAVM complications is high in pregnancy and
pulmonary hypertension, as enlargement of PAVM may
occur. The risk of major complications, particularly with
smaller lesions, appears to be low in pre-adolescent
children.
Currently, many PAVMs are detected during routine medical examinations, and a diagnosis is made based on imaging
on contrast-enhanced chest CT.
20.3.2 Types ofPAVM [19]
20.3.3 Radiological Findings
Radiograph: Well-dened peripheral lung nodule/mass with
a feeding artery, clustered dilated pulmonary vessels
(Fig.20.3).
CT: Multidetector CT is currently considered the most
diagnostic and least invasive examination method [18]. A
well-dened peripheral nodule, which may be ovoid or multilobulated, is the classic manifestation of pulmonary
AVM.The pulmonary artery is seen supplying blood to the
nodule, while one or more draining veins are usually larger
in diameter by 1–2mm compared to the feeding arteries. In
the pulmonary arterial phase of post-contrast CT, it appears
as a uniformly enhancing dilated vascular structure with a
density similar to that of the feeding and draining vessels.
Angiography: In certain instances when the connections
between the pulmonary artery and vein are not clearly visible
on CT images, pulmonary angiography is employed for both
diagnosis and therapy [20].
20.3.4 Endovascular Management
PAVMs are managed by endovascular embolization of the
feeding artery. Transcatheter embolization is recommended
when any of the following conditions are fullled [21]:
(a) Simple PAVMs: 80–90%. The artery supplying the
PAVMs is within one pulmonary segment. However, this
artery can have more than one distal branch supplying
the malformation.
(b) Complex PAVMs: 10–20%. These PAVMs are supplied
fed by arteries involving more than one pulmonary
segment.
(c) Diffuse PAVMs: 5%. The PAVMs involve one or more
segments or lobes and are typically seen in basal
segments.
(d) The nidus connecting the artery and vein may be a single
aneurysmal sac or a plexiform, septate, multi-channeled
connection, with complex PAVMs more commonly having the latter type of nidus.
(e) PAVM supplied by a systemic artery is rarely found.
Location
(a) Lower lobes in approximately 65%.
(b) Upper lobes, right middle lobe, and lingula in 35%.
Multiplicity
(a) PAVMs are multiple in over 50%.
(b) Bilateral PAVMs in over 40%.
Fig. 20.3 PAVM. Chest X-ray showing homogeneous tubular radiopacities in the right lower zone region which represent dilated feeding
artery and draining vein of the PAVM

20 Interventions ofthePulmonary Arteries
231
1. Feeding artery diameter at least 2mm
2. Measurable enlargement of the pulmonary AVM
3. Paradoxical emboli or symptomatic hypoxemia
20.3.4.1 Pre-Procedure Evaluation
All patients who show symptoms or signs that suggest PAVM
or are incidentally found on imaging should be evaluated. All
patients with HHT should be screened [17].
The location, size, and number of PAVMs can be determined by morphologic investigations such as chest radiographs, CT, and MRI. Due to its high sensitivity and
noninvasive nature, CT has become the study of choice. MRI
has the potential to detect PAVMs without exposing patients
to radiation, but its spatial resolution is lower than that of CT.
In terms of screening for PAVM in asymptomatic patients
with HHT, echocardiography with contrast is presently utilized by the majority of centers. If the results are negative,
there is no need for further evaluation. Grade 1 positivity
indicates the presence of microscopic or minuscule PAVMs,
and it is recommended to repeat echocardiography every
5 years to monitor the growth. Higher levels of positivity
necessitate a CT scan to identify PAVMs requiring treatment.
It is also recommended to repeat CT scans at 5-year intervals
and before pregnancy to monitor PAVM growth. As asymptomatic children have a low complication rate, screening
with pulse oximetry and its postural alteration is sufcient.
Once they reach adolescence, they undergo the same screening process as adults.
20.3.4.2 Technique
Typically, the procedure begins with a femoral vein approach
and the insertion of a 7F sheath. Using a 5F pigtail catheter,
pulmonary artery pressure is measured and angiography is
performed, focusing on the abnormal regions identied by a
prior CT scan. Pulmonary hypertension may indicate the
presence of other underlying conditions, such as hepatic
AVM or primary pulmonary hypertension. In severe pulmonary hypertension, embolotherapy should be done with caution, particularly in large PAVMs.
Next, a 7F multipurpose guiding catheter and a 5F angled
catheter are inserted, replacing the pigtail catheter. The guiding catheter provides enhanced support and permits the use
of catheters of various shapes. Using catheters, wires, and, if
necessary, coaxial microcatheters, the targeted pulmonary
artery supplying the PAVM is catheterized. Selective angiography is performed to conrm correct positioning and identify the optimal occlusion site [16]. Air embolism is prevented
by keeping the catheter hub submerged in normal saline
while removing the guidewire.
Embolization should be performed distally, beyond any
signicant supply to normal lung tissue, and as close to the
arteriovenous connection as feasible using an appropriately
sized mechanical agent without the risk of migration through
the right-to-left shunt. A dense network of embolization coils
is essential for long-term occlusion, despite the controversy
surrounding the necessity of embolizing the nidus itself.
Various techniques are used during coil embolization
(Figs.20.4, 20.5, and 20.6).
1. Anchor technique: Here the proximal part of a long coil
(1–2 cm) is deployed within a distal side branch after
which the rest of the coil is placed in the main feeding
artery. This technique prevents coil migration.
2. Scaffold technique: A long coil with high radial force
(stainless steel or Inconel coil) is rst placed in the highow feeding artery following which additional soft coils
are placed into it.
3. An occlusion balloon can be used to secure the position
when the coil is being placed in a high-ow artery.
4. Detachable coils can be used as the rst coil when there is
a concern of distal, transnidal migration, such as with
short-feeding arteries. They can be used as nal coils
when there is concern over proximal prolapse and nontarget embolization of normal pulmonary vasculature.
Due to its rapid occlusion rate and precise placement as it
can be repositioned before detachment, Amplatzer vascular
plug is used for larger PAVM channels [16, 22–24]. However,
their use is limited in more tortuous and smaller feeding
arteries because of their rigidity. Adjunctive use of coils
reduces the risk of recanalization. Microvascular plugs can
be used for arteries of sizes ranging from 1.5 to 3cm [25].
Regional embolization can be considered when there is a
diffuse segmental or multi-segmental involvement. Overall,
catheterization for the treatment of PAVMs requires a cautious and systematic approach, taking into account factors
such as the size and location, as well as the choice of embolic
agent for effective occlusion. Angiography must be performed post-treatment to ensure successful occlusion and to
evaluate for any additional feeding arteries.
20.3.4.3 Post-Procedure Care
Certain measures should be taken for post-procedural care
and long-term follow-up after PAVM embolization. First,
intravenous lines must be removed to prevent iatrogenic
paradoxical embolization of air or thrombus through any
remaining PAVMs. In addition, incentive spirometry can be
used to alleviate atelectasis and pleurisy, particularly after
embolization of large PAVMs. Long-term monitoring is
required to assess the persistence or recurrence of the
treated lesion and the growth of untreated PAVMs. The recommended follow-up protocol consists of clinical evaluation, physiologic evaluation using pulse oximetry, and
potentially exercise stress testing to determine oxygen saturation levels. Contrast-enhanced CT scans are under consideration to evaluate the residual enhancement of the sac

232
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S. Kumar and G. N. Komalamma
Fig. 20.4 PAVM. (a and b)
Axial and coronal CT MIP
images showing dilated
feeding arteries and draining
veins of PAVM in the right
lower lobe; (c and d) selective
DSA runs showing dilated
feeding arteries and dilated
early draining veins
a b
or adjacent discharging vein. The aneurysm size of a treated
lesion should typically decrease by at least 70%. Pulmonary
angiography may be necessary if any abnormality is identied. Due to the presence of residual microscopic PAVMs,
antibiotic prophylaxis is advised prior to dental or other
procedures that contain a risk of bacterial contamination.
Additionally, it is essential to address other issues related to
The most frequent adverse effect following PAVM embolization is pleurisy, characterized by chest pain and fever (3–16%)
[26]. It typically develops several days after the procedure and is
treatable with nonsteroidal anti- inammatory drugs. Selflimiting pleurisy may also present late after several weeks in
2–5% of cases with fever and radiographic inltrates. Local
venous thrombosis is another rare complication of PAVM [27].
HHT, such as the treatment of iron deciency, as studies
have shown an increased thrombosis risk in this
population.
20.3.4.5 Current Evidence
Embolization possesses a high rate of technical success. In a
study by Abdel etal. the technical success rate was 100%.
20.3.4.4 Complications andTheir Management
Paradoxical embolization of air or thrombus is a potential
complication and manifests as angina, transient ischemic
attack, or stroke. However, these events are uncommon and
reported in a small percentage of cases. These conditions can
be managed effectively with nitroglycerin, atropine, and
other medications.
Paradoxical embolization of an occluding device is also
uncommon, with incidence rates ranging from less than 1%
to 4%. Although retrieval of the migrated device may be
required if it affects a critical arterial bed, such severe complications are rare.
Follow-up CT revealed that 97% of PAVMs were successfully treated, and nearly 65% of PAVMs disappeared completely [28]. Other studies have demonstrated a similar
immediate technical success rate of 97–100%, although in
some cases multiple sittings of embolization were required
[29, 30]. After embolization, 8–25% of PAVMs may remain,
primarily attributed to recanalization. Additional factors contributing to the persistence of PAVMs include untreated feeding vessels, reperfusion from systemic to pulmonary
circulation, and reperfusion between different regions of the
lungs [31]. Treating recanalized PAVMs has a higher rate of
technical success as compared to treating reperfused PAVMs.

ab
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20 Interventions ofthePulmonary Arteries
Fig. 20.5 PAVM. (a and b)
Fluro and DSA images
showing AVP plug
deployment and postdeployment run with
complete thrombosis of
feeding artery; (c and d) Fluro
and DSA images showing coil
deployment and postdeployment run with
complete thrombosis of
another feeding artery
233
Fig. 20.6 PAVM. (a)
Completion of DSA run
showing non-opacication of
the feeding arteries and
draining veins of the PAVM;
(b) chest X-ray post-PAVM
embolization showing AVP
plug and coils
20.4 Pulmonary Artery Aneurysm
three layers of the vessel wall. On the other hand, a pseudoa-
neurysm does not affect all layers of the arterial wall and, as
Pulmonary artery aneurysms and pseudoaneurysms are
infrequent occurrences, but it is crucial to identify them due
to their potential complications. An aneurysm is characterized by localized dilation of a blood vessel, involving all
a result, carries a higher risk of rupture. An aneurysm in the
context of pulmonary arteries refers to the focal enlargement
of a pulmonary artery beyond its maximum normal size. The
upper limit of the normal diameter of the main pulmonary
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