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19 Vascular Thoracic Interventions
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58. Kuisk H. Complications of lymphangiography and counter­measures. Technique of Lymphangiography and Principles of Interpretation. St. Louis, MO: WH Green, Inc; 1971. p.40–53.
Interventions ofthePulmonary Arteries
SanjeevKumar andGirishNatarajuKomalamma
20
Key Messages
1. Endovascular interventions play a major role in the man­agement of massive and submassive pulmonary embolism.
2. Prompt evaluation and management reduce the mortality associated with pulmonary embolism.
3. Endovascular treatment options for pulmonary embolism include catheter-directed thrombolysis and mechanical thrombectomy.
4. A comprehensive evaluation of imaging studies is required to determine the size, location, and characteris­tics of the pulmonary arteriovenous malformation (PAVM) as part of a comprehensive preoperative plan­ning process.
5. It is essential to select embolic agents, such as coils or vascular plugs, based on PAVM size and characteristics.
6. The optimal occlusion technique entails positioning the embolic agent as distally as possible, close to the arterio­venous connection, and employing techniques such as the anchor or scaffold technique for effective placement.
7. Avoiding air entry into catheters, precise placement of embolic agents to prevent nontarget embolization, and contemplating antibiotic prophylaxis for infection pre­vention are measures that should be taken to minimize complications.
lead to life-threatening complications. Also, they pose a challenge to prompt diagnosis and their management. Imaging plays a signicant role in diagnosing and planning of management in pulmonary artery pathologies which includes computed tomography and angiography. With high risk for surgical management and availability and advances in endovascular techniques, minimally invasive treatment of these conditions is becoming the rst-line treatment strategy and also an adjunct to surgical treatment. These endovascu­lar techniques have proven to be safe and effective in treating most of the conditions when performed by experienced inter­ventionalists. In this chapter, we aim to provide a compre­hensive overview of the various pulmonary artery pathologies and their management strategies.

20.2 Pulmonary Embolism

Pulmonary embolism (PE) is a signicant global health con­cern with high morbidity and mortality. Each year, there are around 600,000 reported cases of PE and approximately 100,000 to 180,000 PE-related deaths. It is important to note that PE is a preventable cause of mortality, particularly in hospitalized individuals [1, 2].
20.2.1 Risk Stratication

20.1 Introduction

The presentation of patients with acute PE can vary widely, Pulmonary circulation is a high-ow and low-resistance sys­tem that circulates the entire right ventricular output at a pressure of approximately one-fth of the systemic pressure. Even though the incidence of pathologies involving pulmo­nary arteries like PAVM, pulmonary embolism, pulmonary artery aneurysms, and pseudoaneurysms are low, they can
S. Kumar (*) · G. N. Komalamma Department of Cardiovascular Radiology and Endovascular Interventions, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Delhi, India
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2024 S. H. Chandrashekhara (ed.), Textbook of Interventional Radiology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-97-9601-4_20
ranging from sudden cardiac arrest or death to incidental
clots with no signicant impact on the heart or lungs. Around
40% of patients fall into the low-risk category, where
PE-related mortality and morbidity are minimal. In such
cases, standard management involves conservative treatment
with anticoagulation alone, although surveillance may be
considered for subsegmental PE with a low risk of clot recur-
rence and no deep vein thrombosis in the leg [3]. On the
other hand, patients who present with hypotension are cate-
gorized as high-risk or massive PE and require immediate
225
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S. Kumar and G. N. Komalamma
intervention to reduce the risk of mortality through debulk­ing and reperfusion therapy [4, 5].
Right ventricular (RV) strain is an important predictor of impending hemodynamic instability in patients with PE.Biomarkers such as troponin and natriuretic peptides can indicate myocardial necrosis or RV strain respectively [3]. Echocardiography is used to evaluate the RV dilation or systolic dysfunction, tricuspid regurgitation, and inter­ventricular septal bowing. Anticoagulation is the standard treatment for hemodynamically stable patients diagnosed with acute PE.CT scanning, commonly used for diagnos­ing PE, can provide information on certain parameters of RV strain, particularly RV enlargement and straightening of the interventricular septum. Additionally, specic elec­trocardiographic changes, such as T wave inversions in early precordial leads, may indicate the presence of RV strain [6, 7].
20.2.2 Pre-Procedure Evaluation
forPulmonary Artery Interventions
To assess the cardiopulmonary status of a patient suspected of having PE, various steps should be taken. This includes conducting a comprehensive evaluation of the patient’s medical history, performing a physical examination, and utilizing diagnostic tests. Although individual clinical and laboratory parameters may lack specicity, the presence of signicant manifestations indicative of PE can guide the decision to proceed with further diagnostic studies. Several assessments should be conducted during the evaluation process. This includes reviewing chest radiographs and electrocardiograms to rule out acute myocardial infarction and arrhythmias, as well as to evaluate signs of right ven­tricular strain such as P-pulmonale, right-axis deviation, right bundle branch block, or S1Q3T3 pattern. Other diag­nostic tests, such as CT pulmonary angiography and right heart pressure monitoring, can provide valuable informa­tion. Pulmonary capillary wedge pressure is particularly useful in ruling out right-sided heart failure. Measurement of right ventricular end-diastolic pressure and pulmonary artery pressure can help determine the degree of pulmonary hypertension. Additionally, it is important to check the patient’s serum electrolyte levels, blood urea nitrogen, and creatinine levels, coagulation parameters (partial thrombo­plastin time and prothrombin time), and platelet count. Arrhythmias should be managed with prophylactic lido­caine administered intravenously (50–100mg), and consul­tation with a cardiologist may be necessary. During the procedure, continuous cardiac monitoring is essential for all patients. It is crucial to be prepared to place and activate a transvenous pacer if the patient presents with a left bun­dle-branch block.
20.2.3 Pulmonary Angiography
20.2.3.1 Technique
• The choice of venous access for pulmonary angiography is generally through the femoral veins, preferably on the right side, as long as there is no evidence of iliofemoral thrombosis. It is important to note that up to 14% of patients undergoing pulmonary angiography may have a thrombus in the inferior vena cava. In case of uncertainty, it is recommended to perform a limited ultrasound of the femoral veins before puncture and consider venography of the pelvis and/or IVC to ensure safe access.
• Various catheters can be used for the procedure depend­ing on the access site. Pre-shaped catheters like the Grollman or pigtail catheters maneuvered with a tip­deecting wire can be utilized. For jugular or brachial access, there are low-prole catheters available that can enter the pulmonary artery without the need for a tip­deecting wire. A Swan-Ganz catheter can be used for pressure measurements and possible super-selective bal­loon occlusion injections. If necessary, the Swan-Ganz catheter can be exchanged over a wire for another diag­nostic catheter, although this should be done promptly to avoid arrhythmias when the endocardium is exposed to the bare guidewire.
• Measurement of right heart pressures is essential during pulmonary angiography. Approximately 30% of patients undergoing the procedure can have pulmonary hyperten­sion. The right ventricular end-diastolic pressure (RVEDP) should be 20mm Hg or less, and the pulmonary artery systolic pressure should be 70mm Hg. If these pressures are higher, the mortality associated with pulmo­nary angiography is increased, estimated at around 2–3%. In such cases, super-selective injection with balloon occlusion technique and the use of non-ionic contrast media are recommended as safety measures. These pre­cautions become even more important if cardiac output is determined to be below normal.
• Regarding the arteriographic technique, the choice of con­trast agents is crucial. Non-ionic low osmolar contrast agents are preferred and considered mandatory for patients with elevated right-sided pressures. However, low-cost alternative agents are acceptable when right- sided pres­sures are normal. The injection rates for selective arteriog­raphy of the right or left PA range from 30 to 50 mL at 15–25ml/s. Super-selective arteriography, guided by CT pulmonary angiography, is particularly useful for patients with pulmonary hypertension (RVEDP 20mm Hg). The rate and volume of injection should be adjusted based on the size of the region to be studied, typically ranging from 5 to 15mL per second for 2seconds. When balloon occlu­sion is involved, the total volume should not exceed 5 to 7mL, followed by rapid deation of the balloon.
20 Interventions ofthePulmonary Arteries
227
20.2.3.2 Post-Procedure Care
This includes carefully monitoring the patient’s condition, ensuring appropriate pain management, and addressing any potential complications that may arise. In cases where car­diac trauma is suspected during or after angiography, it is essential to discontinue the administration of anticoagulants and promptly transfer the patient to the cardiac intensive care unit for specialized care. Cardiac trauma requires close mon­itoring and immediate intervention to prevent further complications.
Arrhythmias, particularly frequent premature ventricular contractions, should be promptly addressed. To manage PVCs, a recommended approach is administering a bolus of lidocaine intravenously via a catheter into the right atrium. The total dose of lidocaine given may reach up to 100mg, with an initial dose of 50mg. This intervention aims to regu­late the heart rhythm.
20.2.3.3 Complications
Life-threatening complications are uncommon and typically occur as a result of acute cor pulmonale in patients who already have severe pulmonary hypertension and a failing RV.These complications are rare but can include RV perfo­ration, endocardial stain, signicant symptomatic arrhyth­mia, cardiopulmonary arrest, contrast reactions, and renal dysfunction.
20.2.4 Treatment ofHigh-Risk Pulmonary
Embolism
20.2.4.1 Intravenous Thrombolysis
Risk stratication is crucial for determining the need for early and aggressive intervention in patients with PE.High­risk clinical ndings include hypotension (systolic BP <90mm Hg or a drop of >40mm Hg), echocardiographic evidence of RV strain, pulmonary hypertension, a diagnosis of precapillary pulmonary hypertension (mean pulmonary arterial pressure >20mm Hg with normal pulmonary artery occlusion pressures), a widened arterial-alveolar O2 gradient exceeding 50mm Hg, and clinically severe PE with contra­indications to anticoagulation or thrombolytic therapy. The indications for early and aggressive intervention include patients presenting with shock or signs of systemic hypoper­fusion caused by acute massive PE.Additionally, in cases of submassive PE where there is right ventricular dysfunction but no hemodynamic instability, the decision for intervention is more controversial and subject to further discussion.
On the other hand, there are certain contraindications to consider when considering intervention for PE. These include active internal bleeding and/or disseminated intra­vascular coagulation; a recent history (within 3months) of cerebrovascular accident; intracranial or intraspinal surgery
or trauma; the presence of intracranial neoplasm, arteriove­nous malformation, or aneurysm; known bleeding diathesis and/or an absolute contraindication to anticoagulation; and severe, uncontrolled hypertension (which is a relative contra­indication). These contraindications need to be taken into account when determining the appropriateness of interven­tion strategies in PE patients.
Thrombolytic agents are administered through a periph­eral IV line. During the administration of thrombolytic treat­ment, no heparin is given, and procedures involving vascular access and blood draws should be avoided. Since the proto­cols are brief and the dosages are weight-based, mandatory testing for brinogen, brin split products, and thrombin time is not required. Studies have shown that peripheral IV application is as effective as direct application into the main pulmonary artery. The effective administration window for thrombolytic therapy is typically 14 days. Streptokinase, urokinase (UK), and tissue plasminogen activator (TPA) (Alteplase) are FDA-approved thrombolytic agents for the treatment of massive PE.The use of thrombolytic therapy offers several benets over heparin treatment alone, includ­ing faster resolution of thrombus, signicant reduction in pulmonary hypertension within 2 hours of treatment, improved pulmonary perfusion within 24hours, and a poten­tial reduction in mortality for patients in shock due to mas­sive PE.Additionally, in patients with acute PE and right ventricular dysfunction on echocardiography but normal systemic arterial pressure, thrombolytic therapy may reduce mortality and the incidence of recurrent pulmonary embo­lism, although this remains a topic of debate. However, thrombolytic therapy does not reduce mortality or recurrent PE in hemodynamically stable patients. It may have a posi­tive impact on the hemodynamic response to exercise [810].
20.2.4.2 Catheter-Directed Thrombolysis
The localized delivery of thrombolytic agents, known as catheter-directed thrombolysis (CDT), has gained increas­ing interest in the medical eld. By navigating a catheter through an obstructive pulmonary artery thrombus, CDT creates a pathway for drug delivery and enhances the expo­sure of the thrombus to the thrombolytic agent. This approach addresses a limitation of peripherally infused sys­temic thrombolysis, where blood tends to be redirected towards unaffected pulmonary artery segments rather than those with thrombus. In vitro and invivo models have dem­onstrated the presence of eddy currents in the main pulmo­nary arteries, which divert blood ow away from arteries occluded by thrombus [11, 12].
CDT holds promise in potentially improving thrombo­lytic efcacy while offering an improved safety prole with reduced instances of major and intracranial hemorrhage. This is attributed to the localized administration and the potential for lower thrombolytic dosages compared to IV
228
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S. Kumar and G. N. Komalamma
thrombolysis. However, there is a lack of controlled studies directly comparing CDT to IV thrombolysis in the treatment of PE.Existing investigations and registries have primarily compared CDF with isolated anticoagulation, providing lim­ited evidence of its effectiveness [1315].
Among the CDT catheters, Uni-Fuse (Angiodynamics Inc., Latham, NY) and Cragg-McNamara (ev3 Inc., Plymouth, MN) catheters are most commonly used. These catheters have received approval from the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for the infusion of thrombolytics into the peripheral vasculature, although they do not have a spe­cic indication for PE.Typically, operators employ 4- or 5-F catheters with an infusion length of 5–10cm, depending on the extent of clot burden visualized on concurrent pulmonary angiography or pre-procedure CT.Limited clinical outcome data exist regarding the specic utilization of these products for the treatment of PE.
Urokinase is used as a loading dose of 2200IU/kg, fol­lowed by continuous infusion of 2200 IU kg/h for up to 24hours, with the concomitant use of heparin at a rate of 500units per hour [11]. Most centers use alteplase as a bolus dose of 2–5 mg followed by a continuous infusion of
0.5–2.0mg/h for less than 24hours. Monteplase (Cleactor, Eisai Medical Research, Tokyo, Japan) is a new drug that is very effective in patients with acute PE and hemodynamic instability with good results at doses of 13,750 to 27,500IU per kg [14].
20.2.4.3 Mechanical Thrombectomy
Surgical embolectomy has been conventionally done in unstable patients with fulminant PE who have failed or have contraindications to thrombolytic therapy. However, surgical treatment has high morbidity and mortality (29–58%) as shown in a meta-analysis of 597 patients undergoing pulmo­nary embolectomy [11]. This led to the advent of various techniques of endovascular thrombectomy. Indications for mechanical clot fragmentation include patients with high­risk PE who cannot be treated with IV or catheter-directed thrombolysis (Figs.20.1 and 20.2). Advantages of clot frag­mentation include decreased pulmonary vascular resistance, improved perfusion, and subsequent increased efcacy of catheter-directed thrombolysis as there is increased surface area due to fragmentation [11]. Thrombectomy devices can be classied into:
Fig. 20.1 Pulmonary embolism: (a) Axial CT image showing hypodense thrombus in LPA extending into the left upper lobe segmental branch; (b) axial CT image showing dilated RA and RV; (c) sagittal CT image showing dilated RV with straightening of interventricular septum; (d) axial CT MIP image showing dilated IVC and hepatic veins with reux of contrast
bc
20 Interventions ofthePulmonary Arteries
a
229
Fig. 20.2 Pulmonary embolism: (a) DSA image showing lling defect (thrombus) in LPA extending into left upper lobe segmental artery with reduced ow; (b) mechanical thrombectomy using PENUMBRA cath-
Devices that Fragment theThrombus Without Removal
(a) Arrow-Trerotola percutaneous thrombolytic device
(Arrow International, Reading, PA).
(b) Pigtail fragmentation device (William Cook Europe,
Bjaeverskov, Denmark): This is a manually rotatable special 5F pigtail catheter.
(c) Rotational bidirectional thrombectomy (ROBOT): A
standard 5F Pigtail catheter for angiography is used as a fragmentation device and is bidirectionally rotated manually.
Rheolytic Thrombectomy Devices
These devices fragment and remove the emboli. But they cause hemolysis. They have been shown to have a high clini­cal success rate of 92% [15].
(a) Helix Clot Buster thrombectomy device (Microvena,
White Bear Lake, MN).
(b) AngioJet Rapid thrombectomy system (Possis Medical,
Minneapolis, MN): This uses a high-velocity saline solution jet that causes fragmentation of the thrombus following which it can be aspirated. However, the AngioJet device produces bradyarrhythmia and death when used in the pulmonary arteries and carries an FDA black box warning.
(c) Cordis Hydrolyser hydrodynamic thrombectomy cathe-
ter (Cordis, Miami Lakes, FL).
(d) Oasis Thrombectomy System (Boston Scientic, Natick,
MA).
(e) The EndoWave System (EKOS, Bothell, WA) uses a
low-intensity, high-frequency ultrasound combined with thrombolytic infusion.
eter; (c) post mechanical thrombectomy DSA run showing resolution of lling defect with establishment of ow in LPA and left upper lobe pulmonary arteries
Aspiration Thrombectomy Devices
Thrombus is removed using mechanical aspiration by multi­ple catheter passes.
(a) Greeneld pulmonary embolectomy catheter (Boston
Scientic, Natick, MA).
(b) Guiding catheter: It is simple and cost-effective. A cath-
eter with side holes can be used with a 60ml syringe for
aspiration. (c) Suction catheter. (d) ASPIREX (Straub Medical, Wangs, Switzerland): 8 F
mechanical thrombus aspiration device with a rotating
motor at the tip which macerates and removes the
thrombus. (e) AngioVac (AngioDynamics, Albany, NY) is a large-bore
(22F) cannula approved by the FDA.
Shaped-Diagnostic Catheters andPercutaneous Transluminal Angioplasty Balloon Catheters
They can be used to fragment the thrombus and can be com­bined with catheter-directed or systemic thrombolysis [11].
20.3 Pulmonary Arteriovenous
Malformations
Pulmonary arteriovenous malformations (PAVMs) involve abnormal communication between arteries and veins with associated lung abnormalities. A typical AVM consists of feeding arteries, nidus, and drainage veins. However, nidus is often absent in pulmonary AVMs.
PAVMs are often found in association with hereditary
hemorrhagic telangiectasia (HHT), also known as Osler-
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S. Kumar and G. N. Komalamma
Weber- Rendu syndrome, occurring in 56–97% of affected individuals [1618]. Notably, in the context of HHT, these malformations tend to be multiple.
20.3.1 Clinical Manifestations [16, 17]
Due to right-to-left shunting: Arterial hypoxemia (dyspnea, fatigue, cyanosis, clubbing, and rarely polycythemia but can also be asymptomatic), paradoxical embolization (which occurs commonly in the brain with risk of thromboembolic stroke and transient ischemic attack in 11–55% of patients and bacterial embolic brain abscess in 5–25%, high-output heart failure (most commonly in neonates). Hemoptysis and hemothorax occur in 3–18% of cases when thin-walled PAVMs rupture.
The risk of PAVM complications is high in pregnancy and pulmonary hypertension, as enlargement of PAVM may occur. The risk of major complications, particularly with smaller lesions, appears to be low in pre-adolescent children.
Currently, many PAVMs are detected during routine med­ical examinations, and a diagnosis is made based on imaging on contrast-enhanced chest CT.
20.3.2 Types ofPAVM [19]
20.3.3 Radiological Findings
Radiograph: Well-dened peripheral lung nodule/mass with a feeding artery, clustered dilated pulmonary vessels (Fig.20.3).
CT: Multidetector CT is currently considered the most diagnostic and least invasive examination method [18]. A well-dened peripheral nodule, which may be ovoid or mul­tilobulated, is the classic manifestation of pulmonary AVM.The pulmonary artery is seen supplying blood to the nodule, while one or more draining veins are usually larger in diameter by 1–2mm compared to the feeding arteries. In the pulmonary arterial phase of post-contrast CT, it appears as a uniformly enhancing dilated vascular structure with a density similar to that of the feeding and draining vessels.
Angiography: In certain instances when the connections between the pulmonary artery and vein are not clearly visible on CT images, pulmonary angiography is employed for both diagnosis and therapy [20].
20.3.4 Endovascular Management
PAVMs are managed by endovascular embolization of the feeding artery. Transcatheter embolization is recommended when any of the following conditions are fullled [21]:
(a) Simple PAVMs: 80–90%. The artery supplying the
PAVMs is within one pulmonary segment. However, this artery can have more than one distal branch supplying the malformation.
(b) Complex PAVMs: 10–20%. These PAVMs are supplied
fed by arteries involving more than one pulmonary segment.
(c) Diffuse PAVMs: 5%. The PAVMs involve one or more
segments or lobes and are typically seen in basal segments.
(d) The nidus connecting the artery and vein may be a single
aneurysmal sac or a plexiform, septate, multi-channeled connection, with complex PAVMs more commonly hav­ing the latter type of nidus.
(e) PAVM supplied by a systemic artery is rarely found.
Location
(a) Lower lobes in approximately 65%. (b) Upper lobes, right middle lobe, and lingula in 35%.
Multiplicity
(a) PAVMs are multiple in over 50%. (b) Bilateral PAVMs in over 40%.
Fig. 20.3 PAVM. Chest X-ray showing homogeneous tubular radi­opacities in the right lower zone region which represent dilated feeding artery and draining vein of the PAVM
20 Interventions ofthePulmonary Arteries
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1. Feeding artery diameter at least 2mm
2. Measurable enlargement of the pulmonary AVM
3. Paradoxical emboli or symptomatic hypoxemia
20.3.4.1 Pre-Procedure Evaluation
All patients who show symptoms or signs that suggest PAVM or are incidentally found on imaging should be evaluated. All patients with HHT should be screened [17].
The location, size, and number of PAVMs can be deter­mined by morphologic investigations such as chest radio­graphs, CT, and MRI. Due to its high sensitivity and noninvasive nature, CT has become the study of choice. MRI has the potential to detect PAVMs without exposing patients to radiation, but its spatial resolution is lower than that of CT.
In terms of screening for PAVM in asymptomatic patients with HHT, echocardiography with contrast is presently uti­lized by the majority of centers. If the results are negative, there is no need for further evaluation. Grade 1 positivity indicates the presence of microscopic or minuscule PAVMs, and it is recommended to repeat echocardiography every 5 years to monitor the growth. Higher levels of positivity necessitate a CT scan to identify PAVMs requiring treatment. It is also recommended to repeat CT scans at 5-year intervals and before pregnancy to monitor PAVM growth. As asymp­tomatic children have a low complication rate, screening with pulse oximetry and its postural alteration is sufcient. Once they reach adolescence, they undergo the same screen­ing process as adults.
20.3.4.2 Technique
Typically, the procedure begins with a femoral vein approach and the insertion of a 7F sheath. Using a 5F pigtail catheter, pulmonary artery pressure is measured and angiography is performed, focusing on the abnormal regions identied by a prior CT scan. Pulmonary hypertension may indicate the presence of other underlying conditions, such as hepatic AVM or primary pulmonary hypertension. In severe pulmo­nary hypertension, embolotherapy should be done with cau­tion, particularly in large PAVMs.
Next, a 7F multipurpose guiding catheter and a 5F angled catheter are inserted, replacing the pigtail catheter. The guid­ing catheter provides enhanced support and permits the use of catheters of various shapes. Using catheters, wires, and, if necessary, coaxial microcatheters, the targeted pulmonary artery supplying the PAVM is catheterized. Selective angiog­raphy is performed to conrm correct positioning and iden­tify the optimal occlusion site [16]. Air embolism is prevented by keeping the catheter hub submerged in normal saline while removing the guidewire.
Embolization should be performed distally, beyond any signicant supply to normal lung tissue, and as close to the arteriovenous connection as feasible using an appropriately sized mechanical agent without the risk of migration through
the right-to-left shunt. A dense network of embolization coils is essential for long-term occlusion, despite the controversy surrounding the necessity of embolizing the nidus itself. Various techniques are used during coil embolization (Figs.20.4, 20.5, and 20.6).
1. Anchor technique: Here the proximal part of a long coil (1–2 cm) is deployed within a distal side branch after which the rest of the coil is placed in the main feeding artery. This technique prevents coil migration.
2. Scaffold technique: A long coil with high radial force (stainless steel or Inconel coil) is rst placed in the high­ow feeding artery following which additional soft coils are placed into it.
3. An occlusion balloon can be used to secure the position when the coil is being placed in a high-ow artery.
4. Detachable coils can be used as the rst coil when there is a concern of distal, transnidal migration, such as with short-feeding arteries. They can be used as nal coils when there is concern over proximal prolapse and nontar­get embolization of normal pulmonary vasculature.
Due to its rapid occlusion rate and precise placement as it can be repositioned before detachment, Amplatzer vascular plug is used for larger PAVM channels [16, 2224]. However, their use is limited in more tortuous and smaller feeding arteries because of their rigidity. Adjunctive use of coils reduces the risk of recanalization. Microvascular plugs can be used for arteries of sizes ranging from 1.5 to 3cm [25].
Regional embolization can be considered when there is a diffuse segmental or multi-segmental involvement. Overall, catheterization for the treatment of PAVMs requires a cau­tious and systematic approach, taking into account factors such as the size and location, as well as the choice of embolic agent for effective occlusion. Angiography must be per­formed post-treatment to ensure successful occlusion and to evaluate for any additional feeding arteries.
20.3.4.3 Post-Procedure Care
Certain measures should be taken for post-procedural care and long-term follow-up after PAVM embolization. First, intravenous lines must be removed to prevent iatrogenic paradoxical embolization of air or thrombus through any remaining PAVMs. In addition, incentive spirometry can be used to alleviate atelectasis and pleurisy, particularly after embolization of large PAVMs. Long-term monitoring is required to assess the persistence or recurrence of the treated lesion and the growth of untreated PAVMs. The rec­ommended follow-up protocol consists of clinical evalua­tion, physiologic evaluation using pulse oximetry, and potentially exercise stress testing to determine oxygen satu­ration levels. Contrast-enhanced CT scans are under con­sideration to evaluate the residual enhancement of the sac
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S. Kumar and G. N. Komalamma
Fig. 20.4 PAVM. (a and b) Axial and coronal CT MIP images showing dilated feeding arteries and draining veins of PAVM in the right lower lobe; (c and d) selective DSA runs showing dilated feeding arteries and dilated early draining veins
a b
or adjacent discharging vein. The aneurysm size of a treated lesion should typically decrease by at least 70%. Pulmonary angiography may be necessary if any abnormality is identi­ed. Due to the presence of residual microscopic PAVMs, antibiotic prophylaxis is advised prior to dental or other procedures that contain a risk of bacterial contamination. Additionally, it is essential to address other issues related to
The most frequent adverse effect following PAVM emboli­zation is pleurisy, characterized by chest pain and fever (3–16%) [26]. It typically develops several days after the procedure and is treatable with nonsteroidal anti- inammatory drugs. Self­limiting pleurisy may also present late after several weeks in 2–5% of cases with fever and radiographic inltrates. Local venous thrombosis is another rare complication of PAVM [27].
HHT, such as the treatment of iron deciency, as studies have shown an increased thrombosis risk in this population.
20.3.4.5 Current Evidence
Embolization possesses a high rate of technical success. In a study by Abdel etal. the technical success rate was 100%.
20.3.4.4 Complications andTheir Management
Paradoxical embolization of air or thrombus is a potential complication and manifests as angina, transient ischemic attack, or stroke. However, these events are uncommon and reported in a small percentage of cases. These conditions can be managed effectively with nitroglycerin, atropine, and other medications.
Paradoxical embolization of an occluding device is also uncommon, with incidence rates ranging from less than 1% to 4%. Although retrieval of the migrated device may be required if it affects a critical arterial bed, such severe com­plications are rare.
Follow-up CT revealed that 97% of PAVMs were success­fully treated, and nearly 65% of PAVMs disappeared com­pletely [28]. Other studies have demonstrated a similar immediate technical success rate of 97–100%, although in some cases multiple sittings of embolization were required [29, 30]. After embolization, 8–25% of PAVMs may remain, primarily attributed to recanalization. Additional factors con­tributing to the persistence of PAVMs include untreated feed­ing vessels, reperfusion from systemic to pulmonary circulation, and reperfusion between different regions of the lungs [31]. Treating recanalized PAVMs has a higher rate of technical success as compared to treating reperfused PAVMs.
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20 Interventions ofthePulmonary Arteries
Fig. 20.5 PAVM. (a and b) Fluro and DSA images showing AVP plug deployment and post­deployment run with complete thrombosis of feeding artery; (c and d) Fluro and DSA images showing coil deployment and post­deployment run with complete thrombosis of another feeding artery
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Fig. 20.6 PAVM. (a) Completion of DSA run showing non-opacication of the feeding arteries and draining veins of the PAVM; (b) chest X-ray post-PAVM embolization showing AVP plug and coils

20.4 Pulmonary Artery Aneurysm

three layers of the vessel wall. On the other hand, a pseudoa-
neurysm does not affect all layers of the arterial wall and, as Pulmonary artery aneurysms and pseudoaneurysms are infrequent occurrences, but it is crucial to identify them due to their potential complications. An aneurysm is character­ized by localized dilation of a blood vessel, involving all
a result, carries a higher risk of rupture. An aneurysm in the
context of pulmonary arteries refers to the focal enlargement
of a pulmonary artery beyond its maximum normal size. The
upper limit of the normal diameter of the main pulmonary