Физическая и коллоидная химия. Лабораторный практикум. Учебное пособие
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Ʉɨɧɬɪɨɥɶɧɵɟ ɜɨɩɪɨɫɵ ɤ ɥɚɛɨɪɚɬɨɪɧɨɣ ɪɚɛɨɬɟ
ȼ ɱɟɦ ɫɭɬɶ ɤɪɢɨɫɤɨɩɢɱɟɫɤɨɝɨ ɦɟɬɨɞɚ ɨɩɪɟɞɟɥɟɧɢɹ ɦɨɥɟɤɭɥɹɪɧɨɝɨ ɜɟɫɚ ɜɟɳɟɫɬɜ"
Ʉɚɤɜɥɢɹɟɬɤɨɧɰɟɧɬɪɚɰɢɹɜɟɳɟɫɬɜɚɧɚɬɟɦɩɟɪɚɬɭɪɭɡɚɦɟɪɡɚɧɢɹɪɚɫɬɜɨɪɚ"
Ʌɚɛɨɪɚɬɨɪɧɚɹ ɪɚɛɨɬɚ ʋ
Ɉɫɦɨɫ ɢ ɨɫɦɨɬɢɱɟɫɤɨɟ ɞɚɜɥɟɧɢɟ
Ɉɫɦɨɫ – ɫɚɦɨɩɪɨɢɡɜɨɥɶɧɚɹ ɞɢɮɮɭɡɢɹ ɪɚɫɬɜɨɪɢɬɟɥɹ ɜ ɪɚɫɬɜɨɪ ɱɟɪɟɡ ɩɨɥɭ ɩɪɨɧɢɰɚɟɦɭɸ ɦɟɦɛɪɚɧɭ Ɍɪɟɛɨɜɚɧɢɹɦ ɩɨɥɭɩɪɨɧɢɰɚɟɦɨɫɬɢ ɜ ɛɨɥɶɲɟɣ ɢɥɢ ɦɟɧɶ ɲɟɣ ɫɬɟɩɟɧɢ ɨɬɜɟɱɚɸɬ ɪɚɡɥɢɱɧɵɟ ɨɛɨɥɨɱɤɢ ɪɚɫɬɢɬɟɥɶɧɨɝɨ ɢ ɠɢɜɨɬɧɨɝɨ ɩɪɨɢɫ ɯɨɠɞɟɧɢɹ ɚ ɬɚɤɠɟ ɧɟɤɨɬɨɪɵɟ ɦɚɬɟɪɢɚɥɵ ɩɨɥɭɱɟɧɧɵɟ ɢɫɤɭɫɫɬɜɟɧɧɨ ɧɚɩɪɢɦɟɪ ɩɥɟɧɤɚ ɤɨɥɥɨɞɢɹ
Ɉɫɦɨɬɢɱɟɫɤɨɟɞɚɜɥɟɧɢɟ– ɷɬɨ ɞɚɜɥɟɧɢɟ ɤɨɬɨɪɨɟ ɜɨɡɧɢɤɚɟɬ ɧɚ ɟɞɢɧɢɰɟ ɩɨ ɜɟɪɯɧɨɫɬɢ ɩɨɥɭɩɪɨɧɢɰɚɟɦɨɣ ɦɟɦɛɪɚɧɵ
ɉɪɢɦɟɪɨɦ ɢɫɤɭɫɫɬɜɟɧɧɨɣ ɩɨɥɭɩɪɨɧɢɰɚɟɦɨɣ ɨɛɨɥɨɱɤɢ ɦɨɠɟɬ ɫɥɭɠɢɬɶ ɨɛɨ ɥɨɱɤɚ ɢɡ ɝɟɤɫɚɰɢɚɧɨɮɟɪɪɚɬɚ II ɦɟɞɢ ɩɨɥɭɱɚɟɦɨɝɨ ɩɨ ɪɟɚɤɰɢɢ
2 CuSO4 + K4>)H &1 6@ &X2>)H &1 6] + K2SO4.
ɐɟɥɶ ɪɚɛɨɬɵ ɩɨɥɭɱɟɧɢɟ ɢɫɤɭɫɫɬɜɟɧɧɨɣ ɩɨɥɭɩɪɨɧɢɰɚɟɦɨɣ ɦɟɦɛɪɚɧɵ
Ɉɛɨɪɭɞɨɜɚɧɢɟ ɰɢɥɢɧɞɪ
Ɋɟɚɤɬɢɜɵ K4[Fe CN 6@ ɤɪɢɫɬɚɥɥɢɱɟɫɤɢɣ CuSO4.
ɉɨɪɹɞɨɤ ɜɵɩɨɥɧɟɧɢɹ ɪɚɛɨɬɵ
ɐɢɥɢɧɞɪ ɧɚɩɨɥɧɢɬɶ CuSO4 ɢ ɨɩɭɫɬɢɬɶ ɜ ɧɟɝɨ ɤɪɢɫɬɚɥɥɢɤ K4[Fe CN 6]. ɇɚ ɩɨɜɟɪɯɧɨɫɬɢ ɤɪɢɫɬɚɥɥɚ ɨɛɪɚɡɭɟɬɫɹ ɫɩɥɨɲɧɚɹ ɩɥɟɧɤɚ Cu2[Fe CN 6@ ɩɪɨɩɭɫɤɚ ɸɳɚɹ ɜɨɞɭ ɧɨ ɡɚɞɟɪɠɢɜɚɸɳɚɹ ɱɚɫɬɢɰɵ ɫɨɥɟɣ ȼɫɥɟɞɫɬɜɢɟ ɪɚɡɧɨɣ ɤɨɧɰɟɧɬɪɚɰɢɢ ɪɚɫɬɜɨɪɢɬɟɥɹ ɜɨɞɵ ɜɧɭɬɪɢ ɨɛɨɥɨɱɤɢ ɢ ɜɧɟ ɟɟ ɜɨɞɚ ɧɚɱɢɧɚɟɬ ɩɪɨɧɢɤɚɬɶ ɱɟɪɟɡ ɨɛɨɥɨɱɤɭ Ɉɛɨɥɨɱɤɚ ɪɚɫɬɹɝɢɜɚɟɬɫɹ ɢ ɪɚɡɪɵɜɚɟɬɫɹ ɜ ɫɚɦɨɦ ɫɥɚɛɨɦ ɦɟɫɬɟ ɇɚ ɷɬɨɦ ɦɟɫɬɟ ɜɧɨɜɶ ɜɨɡɧɢɤɚɟɬ ɩɥɟɧɤɚ ɢɡ Cu2[Fe CN 6@ ɢ ɬɚɤ ɩɨɫɬɟɩɟɧɧɨ ɪɚɡɜɢ ɜɚɟɬɫɹ ɜɵɬɹɧɭɬɚɹ ɩɨɥɨɫɬɶ ɨɱɟɪɬɚɧɢɹɦɢ ɧɚɩɨɦɢɧɚɸɳɚɹ ɜɨɞɨɪɨɫɥɶ ɢɥɢ ɝɢɞɪɭ ɜɢɞ ɤɨɬɨɪɨɣ ɩɪɢɦɟɪɧɨ ɱɟɪɟɡ ɱɚɫ ɡɚɪɢɫɨɜɚɬɶ ɜ ɬɟɬɪɚɞɶ
21
Ɉɛɪɚɛɨɬɤɚ ɷɤɫɩɟɪɢɦɟɧɬɚɥɶɧɵɯ ɞɚɧɧɵɯ
ɋɞɟɥɚɬɶ ɜɵɜɨɞɵ ɧɚ ɨɫɧɨɜɚɧɢɢ ɨɩɵɬɨɜ 2. Ɂɚɩɢɫɚɬɶ ɩɪɢɦɟɪɵ ɜɥɢɹɧɢɹ ɨɫɦɨɫɚ ɜ ɛɢɨɥɨɝɢɱɟɫɤɢɯ ɫɢɫɬɟɦɚɯ
Ʉɨɧɬɪɨɥɶɧɵɟ ɜɨɩɪɨɫɵ ɤ ɥɚɛɨɪɚɬɨɪɧɨɣ ɪɚɛɨɬɟ
ɉɨ ɤɚɤɨɣ ɮɨɪɦɭɥɟ ɪɚɫɫɱɢɬɵɜɚɟɬɫɹ ɨɫɦɨɬɢɱɟɫɤɨɟ ɞɚɜɥɟɧɢɟ"Ʉɚɤɭɸ ɪɨɥɶ ɢɝɪɚɟɬ ɨɫɦɨɫ ɜ ɠɢɡɧɟɞɟɹɬɟɥɶɧɨɫɬɢ ɪɚɫɬɟɧɢɣ ɢ ɠɢɜɨɬɧɵɯ"
Ʌɚɛɨɪɚɬɨɪɧɚɹ ɪɚɛɨɬɚ ʋ
Ɉɩɪɟɞɟɥɟɧɢɟ ɫɬɚɧɞɚɪɬɧɨɝɨ ɩɨɬɟɧɰɢɚɥɚ
ɫɬɟɤɥɹɧɧɨɝɨ ɷɥɟɤɬɪɨɞɚ
ɐɟɥɶ ɪɚɛɨɬɵ ɜɵɱɢɫɥɢɬɶ ɩɨɬɟɧɰɢɚɥ ɫɬɟɤɥɹɧɧɨɝɨ ɷɥɟɤɬɪɨɞɚ ɢ ɫɞɟɥɚɬɶ ɜɵ ɜɨɞ ɨ ɟɝɨ ɢɫɩɪɚɜɧɨɫɬɢ
Ɉɛɨɪɭɞɨɜɚɧɢɟ ɢɨɧɨɦɟɪ ɫɬɟɤɥɹɧɧɵɣ ɢ ɯɥɨɪɫɟɪɟɛɪɹɧɵɣ ɷɥɟɤɬɪɨɞɵ ɫɬɚ ɤɚɧɚ ɟɦɤɨɫɬɶɸ ɦɥ
Ɋɟɚɤɬɢɜɵ ɞɢɫɬɢɥɥɢɪɨɜɚɧɧɚɹ ɜɨɞɚ ɫɟɪɢɹ ɛɭɮɟɪɧɵɯ ɪɚɫɬɜɨɪɨɜ ɫ ɪɇ
ɋɬɟɤɥɹɧɧɵɣ ɷɥɟɤɬɪɨɞ ɹɜɥɹɟɬɫɹ ɢɨɧɨɫɟɥɟɤɬɢɜɧɵɦ ɷɥɟɤɬɪɨɞɨɦ ɫ ɜɨɞɨɪɨɞ ɧɨɣ ɮɭɧɤɰɢɟɣ ɟɝɨ ɩɨɬɟɧɰɢɚɥ ɡɚɜɢɫɢɬ ɨɬ ɤɨɧɰɟɧɬɪɚɰɢɢ ɢɨɧɨɜ ɜɨɞɨɪɨɞɚ ɢ ɢɫ ɩɨɥɶɡɭɟɬɫɹ ɞɥɹ ɚɧɚɥɢɡɚ ɫɨɞɟɪɠɚɧɢɹ ɢɨɧɨɜ ɜɨɞɨɪɨɞɚ ɜ ɪɚɫɬɜɨɪɟ ɢ ɞɥɹ ɨɩɪɟɞɟɥɟɧɢɹ ɪɇ
ɋɬɟɤɥɹɧɧɵɣ ɷɥɟɤɬɪɨɞ ɬɪɟɛɭɟɬ ɨɫɬɨɪɨɠɧɨɝɨ ɨɛɪɚɳɟɧɢɹ ɬɚɤ ɤɚɤ ɬɨɥɳɢɧɚ ɫɬɟɤɥɹɧɧɨɝɨ ɲɚɪɢɤɚ ɫɨɫɬɚɜɥɹɟɬ ɞɟɫɹɬɵɟ ɞɨɥɢ ɦɢɥɥɢɦɟɬɪɚ ɢ ɟɝɨ ɥɟɝɤɨ ɩɨɜɪɟ ɞɢɬɶ
ȼ ɪɟɡɭɥɶɬɚɬɟ ɷɤɫɩɥɭɚɬɚɰɢɢ ɩɨɜɟɪɯɧɨɫɬɶ ɫɬɟɤɥɹɧɧɨɝɨ ɷɥɟɤɬɪɨɞɚ ɡɚɝɪɹɡɧɹ ɟɬɫɹ ɤɨɦɩɨɧɟɧɬɚɦɢ ɪɚɫɬɜɨɪɨɜ ɩɨɷɬɨɦɭ ɧɚɛɥɸɞɚɟɬɫɹ ɞɪɟɣɮ ɢɡɦɟɧɟɧɢɟ ɩɨɬɟɧɰɢ ɚɥɚ ɷɥɟɤɬɪɨɞɚ ɩɪɢ ɤɨɬɨɪɨɦ ɧɟɥɶɡɹ ɨɰɟɧɢɬɶ ɩɪɚɜɢɥɶɧɨɫɬɶ ɩɨɤɚɡɚɧɢɣ ɩɪɢɛɨɪɚ ɉɪɢ ɪɚɛɨɬɟ ɫɨ ɫɬɟɤɥɹɧɧɵɦ ɷɥɟɤɬɪɨɞɨɦ ɜɫɟɝɞɚ ɫɥɟɞɭɟɬ ɢɡɦɟɪɹɬɶ ɟɝɨ ɷɥɟɤɬɪɨɞɧɵɣ ɩɨɬɟɧɰɢɚɥ ɢ ɩɪɨɜɨɞɢɬɶ ɧɚɫɬɪɨɣɤɭ ɢɨɧɨɦɟɪɚ ɩɨ ɛɭɮɟɪɧɵɦ ɪɚɫɬɜɨɪɚɦ ɫ ɪɚɡɥɢɱ ɧɵɦɢ ɡɧɚɱɟɧɢɹɦɢ ɪɇ
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ɉɨɪɹɞɨɤ ɜɵɩɨɥɧɟɧɢɹ ɪɚɛɨɬɵ
ɉɨɞɝɨɬɨɜɤɚ ɩɪɢɛɨɪɚ ȼɤɥɸɱɢɬɶ ɩɪɢɛɨɪ ɡɚ ɦɢɧɭɬ ɞɨ ɚɧɚɥɢɡɚ ɜ ɫɟɬɶ ɞɥɹ ɩɪɨɝɪɟɜɚ ɗɥɟɤɬɪɨɞɵ ɞɨɥɠɧɵ ɧɚɯɨɞɢɬɶɫɹ ɜ ɫɬɚɤɚɧɟ ɫ ɞɢɫɬɢɥɥɢɪɨɜɚɧɧɨɣ ɜɨɞɨɣ
ɂɡɦɟɪɟɧɢɟ ɗȾɋ ɛɭɮɟɪɧɵɯ ɪɚɫɬɜɨɪɨɜ ɂɡɦɟɪɢɬɶ ɷɥɟɤɬɪɨɞɜɢɠɭɳɭɸ ɫɢ-
ɥɭ ɜ ɜɨɥɶɬɚɯ ȿ ȼ ɤɚɠɞɨɝɨ ɛɭɮɟɪɧɨɝɨ ɪɚɫɬɜɨɪɚ ɞɥɹ ɷɬɨɝɨ – ɦɥ ɪɚɫɬɜɨɪɚ ɧɚɥɢɬɶ ɜ ɫɬɚɤɚɧ ɢ ɨɩɭɫɬɢɬɶ ɜ ɪɚɫɬɜɨɪ ɷɥɟɤɬɪɨɞɵ Ɋɟɡɭɥɶɬɚɬɵ ɷɤɫɩɟɪɢɦɟɧɬɚ ɡɚ ɩɢɫɚɬɶ ɜ ɬɚɛɥɢɰɭ .
Ɍɚɛɥɢɰɚ 5
ɗɤɫɩɟɪɢɦɟɧɬɚɥɶɧɵɟ ɞɚɧɧɵɟ
ɪɇ ɛɭɮɟɪɧɨɝɨ |
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ȿ ȼ |
ˈ˔˕ ȼ |
ɪɚɫɬɜɨɪɚ |
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ȼɵɱɢɫɥɟɧɢɟ ɫɬɚɧɞɚɪɬɧɨɝɨ ɩɨɬɟɧɰɢɚɥɚ ɫɬɟɤɥɹɧɧɨɝɨ ɷɥɟɤɬɪɨɞɚ Ɉɩɪɟ ɞɟɥɢɬɶ ɩɨ ɫɩɪɚɜɨɱɧɵɦ ɞɚɧɧɵɦ ɩɪɢɥ 1 ɬɚɛɥ ɩɨɬɟɧɰɢɚɥ ɧɚɫɵɳɟɧɧɨɝɨ ɯɥɨɪ ɫɟɪɟɛɪɹɧɨɝɨ ɷɥɟɤɬɪɨɞɚ eɯɫ ɩɪɢ Ʉ
ȼɵɱɢɫɥɢɬɶ ɫɬɚɧɞɚɪɬɧɵɣ ɩɨɬɟɧɰɢɚɥ ɫɬɟɤɥɹɧɧɨɝɨ ɷɥɟɤɬɪɨɞɚ Ɋɚɫɱɟɬ ɩɪɨɜɟ ɫɬɢ ɩɨ ɭɪɚɜɧɟɧɢɸ ɇɟɪɧɫɬɚ ɞɥɹ ɫɬɟɤɥɹɧɧɨɝɨ ɷɥɟɤɬɪɨɞɚ
ɝɞɟ eɫɬ |
– ɩɨɬɟɧɰɢɚɥ |
ˈ˔˕ |
= |
ˈ˔˕ |
+ 0,0059 |
ή |
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], |
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ɫɬɟɤɥɹɧɧɨɝɨ ɷɥɟɤɬɪɨɞɚ |
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ˈ˔˕ – ɫɬɚɧɞɚɪɬɧɵɣ ɩɨɬɟɧɰɢɚɥ ɫɬɟɤɥɹɧɧɨɝɨ ɷɥɟɤɬɪɨɞɚ |
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ɍɱɢɬɵɜɚɹ ɱɬɨ ɪɇ í lg[H+@ ɜɵɪɚɠɟɧɢɟ 8 ɩɪɢɦɟɬ ɜɢɞ |
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ˈ˔˕ = ˈ˔˕ 0,0059 ή ˓ʜ. |
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ɉɨɞɫɬɚɜɢɬɶ ɜɵɪɚɠɟɧɢɟ 9 ɜ ɮɨɪɦɭɥɭ ɪɚɫɱɟɬɚ ɷɥɟɤɬɪɨɞɜɢɠɭɳɟɣ ɫɢɥɵ
ʔ = ˈ˔˕ ˈ˘˔ = ˈ˔˕ 0,059 ή ˓ʜ ˈ˘˔, |
10 |
ɢ ɜɵɪɚɡɢɬɶ ɢɡ ɮɨɪɦɭɥɵ 10 ɜɟɥɢɱɢɧɭ ˈ˔˕ 11
ˈ˔˕ = ʔ + 0,0059 ή˓ʜ + ˈ˘˔. |
11 |
Ɋɚɫɫɱɢɬɚɬɶ ɫɬɚɧɞɚɪɬɧɵɣ ɩɨɬɟɧɰɢɚɥ ɫɬɟɤɥɹɧɧɨɝɨ ɷɥɟɤɬɪɨɞɚ ɞɥɹ ɜɫɟɯ ɛɭɮɟɪɧɵɯ ɪɚɫɬɜɨɪɨɜ
Ɉɛɪɚɛɨɬɤɚ ɷɤɫɩɟɪɢɦɟɧɬɚɥɶɧɵɯ ɞɚɧɧɵɯ
1.ɉɨɫɬɪɨɢɬɶ ɝɪɚɮɢɤ ɡɚɜɢɫɢɦɨɫɬɢ ɪɇ ɨɫɶ ɚɛɫɰɢɫɫ – ȿ ɨɫɶ ɨɪɞɢɧɚɬ ɫɞɟ ɥɚɬɶ ɜɵɜɨɞ ɨ ɥɢɧɟɣɧɨɫɬɢ ɞɢɚɩɚɡɨɧɚ ɜɨɞɨɪɨɞɧɨɣ ɯɚɪɚɤɬɟɪɢɫɬɢɤɢ
2.ɋɞɟɥɚɬɶ ɜɵɜɨɞ ɨɛ ɢɫɩɪɚɜɧɨɫɬɢ ɷɥɟɤɬɪɨɞɚ ɫɪɚɜɧɢɜ ɡɧɚɱɟɧɢɹ ɫɬɚɧɞɚɪɬ ɧɵɯ ɷɥɟɤɬɪɨɞɧɵɯ ɩɨɬɟɧɰɢɚɥɨɜ ɞɥɹ ɜɫɟɯ ɢɫɫɥɟɞɭɟɦɵɯ ɪɚɫɬɜɨɪɨɜ ȿɫɥɢ ɷɬɢ ɡɧɚɱɟɧɢɹ ɪɚɜɧɵ ɬɨ ɷɥɟɤɬɪɨɞ ɢɫɩɪɚɜɟɧ
Ɂɚɩɢɫɚɬɶ ɫɯɟɦɭ ɰɟɩɢ ɭɤɚɡɚɬɶ ɤɚɤɨɣ ɷɥɟɤɬɪɨɞ ɹɜɥɹɟɬɫɹ ɢɧɞɢɤɚɬɨɪɧɵɦ ɚ ɤɚɤɨɣ – ɷɥɟɤɬɪɨɞɨɦ ɫɪɚɜɧɟɧɢɹ
Ʉɨɧɬɪɨɥɶɧɵɟ ɜɨɩɪɨɫɵ ɤ ɥɚɛɨɪɚɬɨɪɧɨɣ ɪɚɛɨɬɟ
1.Ʉɚɤ ɭɫɬɪɨɟɧ ɫɬɟɤɥɹɧɧɵɣ ɷɥɟɤɬɪɨɞ"
2.ɇɚ ɱɟɦ ɨɫɧɨɜɚɧɚ ɮɭɧɤɰɢɹ ɢɨɧɧɨɣ ɫɟɥɟɤɬɢɜɧɨɫɬɢ ɝɪɭɩɩɵ ɫɬɟɤɥɹɧɧɵɯ ɷɥɟɤɬɪɨɞɨɜ"
ɉɨɱɟɦɭ ɩɨɬɟɧɰɢɚɥ ɫɬɟɤɥɹɧɧɨɝɨ ɷɥɟɤɬɪɨɞɚ ɡɚɜɢɫɢɬ ɨɬ ɤɨɧɰɟɧɬɪɚɰɢɢ ɢɨɧɨɜ ɜɨɞɨɪɨɞɚ"
4.ɑɬɨ ɹɜɥɹɟɬɫɹ ɚɧɚɥɢɬɢɱɟɫɤɢɦ ɫɢɝɧɚɥɨɦ ɜ ɩɨɬɟɧɰɢɨɦɟɬɪɢɱɟɫɤɢɯ ɦɟɬɨɞɚɯ"ɑɬɨ ɬɚɤɨɟ ɢɧɞɢɤɚɬɨɪɧɵɟ ɷɥɟɤɬɪɨɞɵ ɢ ɷɥɟɤɬɪɨɞɵ ɫɪɚɜɧɟɧɢɹ"Ʉɚɤ ɩɪɨɜɟɪɢɬɶ ɢɫɩɪɚɜɧɨɫɬɶ ɫɬɟɤɥɹɧɧɨɝɨ ɷɥɟɤɬɪɨɞɚ"
24
Ʌɚɛɨɪɚɬɨɪɧɚɹ ɪɚɛɨɬɚ ʋ
ɉɨɬɟɧɰɢɨɦɟɬɪɢɱɟɫɤɨɟ ɨɩɪɟɞɟɥɟɧɢɟ ɤɨɧɫɬɚɧɬɵ
ɢ ɫɬɟɩɟɧɢ ɞɢɫɫɨɰɢɚɰɢɢ ɭɤɫɭɫɧɨɣ ɤɢɫɥɨɬɵ
ɐɟɥɶ ɪɚɛɨɬɵ ɢɡɭɱɟɧɢɟ ɜɥɢɹɧɢɹ ɪɚɡɛɚɜɥɟɧɢɹ ɧɚ ɫɬɟɩɟɧɶ ɞɢɫɫɨɰɢɚɰɢɢ ɢ ɪɇ ɪɚɫɬɜɨɪɨɜ Cɇ ɋɈɈɇ
Ɉɛɨɪɭɞɨɜɚɧɢɟ ɢɨɧɨɦɟɪ ɫɨ ɫɬɟɤɥɹɧɧɵɦ ɢ ɯɥɨɪɫɟɪɟɛɪɹɧɵɦ ɷɥɟɤɬɪɨɞɚɦɢ ɯɢɦɢɱɟɫɤɢɟ ɫɬɚɤɚɧɵ ɟɦɤɨɫɬɶɸ – ɦɥ ɛɸɪɟɬɤɢ
Ɋɟɚɤɬɢɜɵ ɪɚɫɬɜɨɪɵ Cɇ ɋɈɈɇ ɪɚɡɧɨɣ ɤɨɧɰɟɧɬɪɚɰɢɢ ɩɨ ɭɤɚɡɚɧɢɸ ɩɪɟ ɩɨɞɚɜɚɬɟɥɹ ɨɬ ɧ ɞɨ ɧ Cɇ ɋɈɈɇ
ɉɨɪɹɞɨɤ ɜɵɩɨɥɧɟɧɢɹ ɪɚɛɨɬɵ
ɉɨɥɭɱɢɬɶ ɭ ɩɪɟɩɨɞɚɜɚɬɟɥɹ ɪɚɫɬɜɨɪɵ Cɇ ɋɈɈɇ ɪɚɡɧɨɣ ɤɨɧɰɟɧɬɪɚɰɢɢɈɩɪɟɞɟɥɢɬɶ ɪɇ ɤɚɠɞɨɝɨ ɢɡ ɪɚɫɬɜɨɪɨɜ ɧɚ ɪɇ-ɦɟɬɪɟ ɢɨɧɨɦɟɪɟȼɵɱɢɫɥɢɬɶ ɤɨɧɰɟɧɬɪɚɰɢɸ ɢɨɧɨɜ ɜɨɞɨɪɨɞɚ >H+@ ɜ ɦɨɥɶ ɥ Ɍɚɤ ɤɚɤ ɜɨɞɨ
ɪɨɞɧɵɣ ɩɨɤɚɡɚɬɟɥɶ ɪɚɫɫɱɢɬɵɜɚɟɬɫɹ ɩɨ ɭɪɚɜɧɟɧɢɸ
ɪɇ -lg [H+@ |
2 |
ɬɨ ɤɨɧɰɟɧɬɪɚɰɢɹ ɢɨɧɨɜ ɜɨɞɨɪɨɞɚ ɪɚɜɧɚ
[H+] = 10-ɪɇ. |
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Ɋɚɫɫɱɢɬɚɬɶ Į ɞɥɹ ɤɚɠɞɨɝɨ ɡɧɚɱɟɧɢɹ >H+@ ɉɨ ɡɚɤɨɧɭ ɪɚɡɜɟɞɟɧɢɹ
Ʉ Į2 Â ɋɧ |
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ɝɞɟ Ʉ – ɤɨɧɫɬɚɧɬɚ ɞɢɫɫɨɰɢɚɰɢɢ ɷɥɟɤɬɪɨɥɢɬɚ ɩɪɢɥ 1 ɬɚɛɥ Į – ɫɬɟɩɟɧɶ ɞɢɫɫɨɰɢɚɰɢɢ ɷɥɟɤɬɪɨɥɢɬɚ ɋɧ – ɦɨɥɹɪɧɚɹ ɤɨɧɰɟɧɬɪɚɰɢɹ ɷɤɜɢɜɚɥɟɧɬɨɜ ɦɨɥɶ-ɷɤɜ ɥ.
Ɉɛɪɚɛɨɬɤɚ ɷɤɫɩɟɪɢɦɟɧɬɚɥɶɧɵɯ ɞɚɧɧɵɯ
Ɉɮɨɪɦɢɬɶ ɪɟɡɭɥɶɬɚɬɵ ɨɩɵɬɨɜ ɜ ɜɢɞɟ ɬɚɛɥɢɰɵ 6.
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Ɍɚɛɥɢɰɚ 6
ɗɤɫɩɟɪɢɦɟɧɬɚɥɶɧɵɟ ɞɚɧɧɵɟ
Ʉɨɧɰɟɧɬɪɚɰɢɹ
ɪɇ Į
Cɇ ɋɈɈɇ ɦɨɥɶ ɥ
1.
2.
ɋɞɟɥɚɬɶ ɜɵɜɨɞ ɨ ɡɚɜɢɫɢɦɨɫɬɢ ɫɬɟɩɟɧɢ ɞɢɫɫɨɰɢɚɰɢɢ ɫɥɚɛɵɯ ɷɥɟɤɬɪɨɥɢ ɬɨɜ ɢ ɪɇ ɨɬ ɤɨɧɰɟɧɬɪɚɰɢɢ ɪɚɫɬɜɨɪɚ
Ʉɨɧɬɪɨɥɶɧɵɟ ɜɨɩɪɨɫɵ ɤ ɥɚɛɨɪɚɬɨɪɧɨɣ ɪɚɛɨɬɟ
Ʉɚɤ ɢɡɦɟɧɹɟɬɫɹ ɫɬɟɩɟɧɶ ɞɢɫɫɨɰɢɚɰɢɢ ɫɥɚɛɨɝɨ ɷɥɟɤɬɪɨɥɢɬɚ ɩɪɢ ɭɦɟɧɶɲɟɧɢɢ ɤɨɧɰɟɧɬɪɚɰɢɢ ɪɚɫɬɜɨɪɚ"
2. ɑɟɦɭ ɪɚɜɧɚ ɫɬɟɩɟɧɶ ɞɢɫɫɨɰɢɚɰɢɢ ɫɢɥɶɧɵɯ ɫɥɚɛɵɯ ɢ ɫɪɟɞɧɢɯ ɷɥɟɤɬɪɨɥɢɬɨɜ"
Ʌɚɛɨɪɚɬɨɪɧɚɹ ɪɚɛɨɬɚ ʋ
Ȼɭɮɟɪɧɵɟ ɪɚɫɬɜɨɪɵ
ɐɟɥɶ ɪɚɛɨɬɵ ɢɡɭɱɟɧɢɟ ɫɜɨɣɫɬɜ ɛɭɮɟɪɧɵɯ ɪɚɫɬɜɨɪɨɜ Ɉɛɨɪɭɞɨɜɚɧɢɟ ɢɨɧɨɦɟɪ ɫɨ ɫɬɟɤɥɹɧɧɵɦ ɢ ɯɥɨɪɫɟɪɟɛɪɹɧɵɦ ɷɥɟɤɬɪɨɞɚɦɢ
ɯɢɦɢɱɟɫɤɢɟ ɫɬɚɤɚɧɵ ɟɦɤɨɫɬɶɸ – ɦɥ ɩɢɩɟɬɤɢ
Ɋɟɚɤɬɢɜɵ ɧ ɇɋl ɧ NaOH ɧ ɋɇ ɋɈɈɇ ɧ ɋɇ ɋɈɈNa ɞɢ ɫɬɢɥɥɢɪɨɜɚɧɧɚɹ ɜɨɞɚ
ɉɨɪɹɞɨɤ ɜɵɩɨɥɧɟɧɢɹ ɪɚɛɨɬɵ
1. ɉɨɥɭɱɢɬɶ ɭ ɩɪɟɩɨɞɚɜɚɬɟɥɹ ɧɨɦɟɪ ɜɚɪɢɚɧɬɚ ɢ ɩɪɢɝɨɬɨɜɢɬɶ ɩɨ ɬɚɛɥɢɰɟ 7 ɡɚɞɚɧɧɵɣ ɛɭɮɟɪɧɵɣ ɪɚɫɬɜɨɪ ɨɬɦɟɪɢɜ ɩɪɢ ɩɨɦɨɳɢ ɛɸɪɟɬɤɢ ɡɚɞɚɧɧɵɟ ɤɨɥɢɱɟ ɫɬɜɚ ɤɢɫɥɨɬɵ ɢ ɫɨɥɢ
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Ɍɚɛɥɢɰɚ 7 |
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ȼɚɪɢɚɧɬɵ ɡɚɞɚɧɢɣ |
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ɇɨɦɟɪ ɜɚɪɢɚɧɬɚ |
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ɋɨɫɬɚɜ |
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ɛɭɮɟɪɧɨɝɨ ɪɚɫɬɜɨɪɚ |
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V ɤɢɫɥɨɬɵ Vɤ ɦɥ |
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V ɫɨɥɢ Vɫ ɦɥ |
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2. Ɋɚɫɫɱɢɬɚɬɶ ɬɟɨɪɟɬɢɱɟɫɤɨɟ ɡɧɚɱɟɧɢɟ ɪɇ ɡɚɞɚɧɧɨɝɨ ɛɭɮɟɪɧɨɝɨ ɪɚɫɬɜɨɪɚ |
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ɪɇ -lg [H+@ |
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[H+@ |
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ɋɫ |
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ɝɞɟ Ʉ – ɤɨɧɫɬɚɧɬɚ ɞɢɫɫɨɰɢɚɰɢɢ ɤɢɫɥɨɬɵ ɩɪɢɥ 1 ɬɚɛɥ ɋɤ ɋɫ – ɤɨɧɟɱɧɵɟ ɤɨɧɰɟɧɬɪɚɰɢɹ ɤɢɫɥɨɬɵ ɢ ɫɨɥɢ ɫɨɨɬɜɟɬɫɬɜɟɧɧɨ
Ɍɚɤ ɤɚɤ ɩɪɢ ɫɥɢɜɚɧɢɢ ɪɚɫɬɜɨɪɨɜ ɩɪɨɢɫɯɨɞɢɬ ɢɯ ɪɚɡɛɚɜɥɟɧɢɟ ɬɨ ɢɫɯɨɞɧɵɟ ɤɨɧɰɟɧɬɪɚɰɢɢ ɤɢɫɥɨɬɵ ɢ ɫɨɥɢ ʠˍ ɢ ʠ ɫɭɳɟɫɬɜɟɧɧɨ ɨɬɥɢɱɚɸɬɫɹ ɨɬ ɤɨɧɟɱɧɵɯ ɤɨɧɰɟɧɬɪɚɰɢɣ Ʉɨɧɟɱɧɵɟ ɤɨɧɰɟɧɬɪɚɰɢɢ ɪɚɫɫɱɢɬɵɜɚɸɬ ɩɨ ɫɥɟɞɭɸɳɢɦ ɮɨɪɦɭɥɚɦ
ʠˍ = ʠˍ |
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ʠ˔ = ʠ˔ |
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ɝɞɟ Vɤ – ɨɛɴɟɦ ɤɢɫɥɨɬɵ ɦɥ
Vɫ – ɨɛɴɟɦ ɫɨɥɢ ɦɥ
ɉɪɨɢɡɜɟɫɬɢ ɩɪɚɤɬɢɱɟɫɤɨɟ ɢɡɦɟɪɟɧɢɟ ɪɇ ɛɭɮɟɪɧɨɝɨ ɪɚɫɬɜɨɪɚ ɧɚ ɢɨɧɨ
ɦɟɪɟ
Ⱦɨɛɚɜɢɬɶ ɤ ɢɫɫɥɟɞɭɟɦɨɦɭ ɛɭɮɟɪɧɨɦɭ ɪɚɫɬɜɨɪɭ ɤɚɩɥɢ ɧ ɇɋl ɩɟɪɟɦɟɲɚɬɶ ɢɡɦɟɪɢɬɶ ɪɇ ɧɚ ɢɨɧɨɦɟɪɟ ɋɞɟɥɚɬɶ ɜɵɜɨɞ ɤɚɤ ɜɥɢɹɟɬ ɩɨɞɤɢɫɥɟɧɢɟ ɧɚ ɪɇ ɛɭɮɟɪɧɨɝɨ ɪɚɫɬɜɨɪɚ
Ʉ ɧɨɜɨɣ ɩɨɪɰɢɢ ɢɫɫɥɟɞɭɟɦɨɝɨ ɛɭɮɟɪɧɨɝɨ ɪɚɫɬɜɨɪɚ ɞɨɛɚɜɢɬɶ ɤɚɩɥɢɧ NaOH ɩɟɪɟɦɟɲɚɬɶ ɢɡɦɟɪɢɬɶ ɪɇ ɧɚ ɢɨɧɨɦɟɪɟ ɋɞɟɥɚɬɶ ɜɵɜɨɞ ɤɚɤ ɜɥɢɹɟɬ ɩɨɞɳɟɥɚɱɢɜɚɧɢɟ ɧɚ ɪɇ ɛɭɮɟɪɧɨɝɨ ɪɚɫɬɜɨɪɚ
ɉɪɨɢɡɜɟɫɬɢ ɪɚɡɛɚɜɥɟɧɢɟ ɧɨɜɨɣ ɩɨɪɰɢɢ ɛɭɮɟɪɧɨɝɨ ɪɚɫɬɜɨɪɚ ɜ ɪɚɡɚ ɞɢ ɫɬɢɥɥɢɪɨɜɚɧɧɨɣ ɜɨɞɨɣ ɋɞɟɥɚɬɶ ɜɵɜɨɞ
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7. ȼ ɞɜɚ ɫɬɚɤɚɧɱɢɤɚ ɧɚɥɢɬɶ ɩɨ ɦɥ ɞɢɫɬɢɥɥɢɪɨɜɚɧɧɨɣ ɜɨɞɵ ɢɡɦɟɪɢɬɶ ɪɇ ɜɨɞɵ ɧɚ ɢɨɧɨɦɟɪɟ Ɂɚɬɟɦ ɜ ɨɞɢɧ ɜɧɟɫɬɢ ɤɚɩɥɢ ɧ ɇɋl ɜ ɞɪɭɝɨɣ – ɤɚɩɥɢ ɧ NaOH ɩɟɪɟɦɟɲɚɬɶ ɢɡɦɟɪɢɬɶ ɪɇ ɧɚ ɢɨɧɨɦɟɪɟ ɉɪɨɫɥɟɞɢɬɶ ɤɚɤɢɟ ɢɡɦɟɧɟɧɢɹ ɩɪɨɢɫɯɨɞɹɬ ɫ ɪɇ
Ɉɛɪɚɛɨɬɤɚ ɷɤɫɩɟɪɢɦɟɧɬɚɥɶɧɵɯ ɞɚɧɧɵɯ
Ɉɛɴɹɫɧɢɬɶ ɦɟɯɚɧɢɡɦ ɛɭɮɟɪɧɨɝɨ ɞɟɣɫɬɜɢɹ ɧɚ ɩɪɢɦɟɪɟ ɚɰɟɬɚɬɧɨɝɨ ɛɭɮɟɪ ɧɨɝɨ ɪɚɫɬɜɨɪɚ
Ɉɮɨɪɦɢɬɶ ɪɟɡɭɥɶɬɚɬɵ ɨɩɵɬɨɜ ɜ ɜɢɞɟ ɬɚɛɥɢɰɵ 8.
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Ɍɚɛɥɢɰɚ 8 |
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Ɋɟɡɭɥɶɬɚɬɵ ɷɤɫɩɟɪɢɦɟɧɬɚ |
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ʠ |
V |
ɪɇ |
ɪɇ |
ɪɇ ɇɋl |
ɪɇ NaOH |
ɪɇ ɇ2Ɉ |
ɋɨɫɬɚɜ |
ɦɨɥɶ ɥ |
ɦɥ |
ɬɟɨɪ |
ɩɪɚɤɬ |
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ɋɇ ɋɈɈɇ |
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ɋɇ ɋɈɈNa |
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ɇ2Ɉ |
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Ʉɨɧɬɪɨɥɶɧɵɟ ɜɨɩɪɨɫɵ ɤ ɥɚɛɨɪɚɬɨɪɧɨɣ ɪɚɛɨɬɟ
ɑɬɨ ɬɚɤɨɟ ɛɭɮɟɪɧɚɹ ɟɦɤɨɫɬɶ ɪɚɫɬɜɨɪɚ"Ʉɚɤɨɣ ɛɭɮɟɪɧɵɣ ɪɚɫɬɜɨɪ ɧɚɯɨɞɢɬɫɹ ɜ ɤɪɨɜɢ"Ʉɚɤɨɟ ɡɧɚɱɟɧɢɟ ɢɦɟɸɬ ɛɭɮɟɪɧɵɟ ɪɚɫɬɜɨɪɵ"
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ɌȿɆȺ ,V
ɗɅȿɄɌɊɈɉɊɈȼɈȾɇɈɋɌɖ ɊȺɋɌȼɈɊɈȼ
Ʉɨɧɬɪɨɥɶɧɵɟ ɜɨɩɪɨɫɵ ɩɨ ɬɟɦɟ
1.ɑɬɨ ɬɚɤɨɟ ɷɥɟɤɬɪɨɥɢɬɢɱɟɫɤɚɹ ɞɢɫɫɨɰɢɚɰɢɹ"
2.ɑɬɨ ɬɚɤɨɟ ɭɞɟɥɶɧɚɹ ɷɥɟɤɬɪɨɩɪɨɜɨɞɧɨɫɬɶ ɷɤɜɢɜɚɥɟɧɬɧɚɹ ɷɥɟɤɬɪɨɩɪɨɜɨɞ ɧɨɫɬɶ ɩɨɞɜɢɠɧɨɫɬɶ ɢɨɧɨɜ"
Ʉɚɤɢɟ ɪɚɡɥɢɱɢɹ ɧɚɛɥɸɞɚɸɬɫɹ ɜ ɢɡɦɟɧɟɧɢɢ ɷɤɜɢɜɚɥɟɧɬɧɨɣ ɷɥɟɤɬɪɨɩɪɨ ɜɨɞɧɨɫɬɢ ɫ ɪɚɡɛɚɜɥɟɧɢɟɦ ɜ ɪɚɫɬɜɨɪɚɯ ɫɥɚɛɵɯ ɢ ɫɢɥɶɧɵɯ ɷɥɟɤɬɪɨɥɢɬɨɜ"
4.Ʉɚɤɢɦ ɦɟɬɨɞɨɦ ɢɫɫɥɟɞɭɸɬ ɷɥɟɤɬɪɨɩɪɨɜɨɞɧɨɫɬɶ ɪɚɫɬɜɨɪɨɜ"
5.ȼ ɱɟɦ ɡɚɤɥɸɱɚɟɬɫɹ ɫɭɳɧɨɫɬɶ ɤɨɧɞɭɤɬɨɦɟɬɪɢɱɟɫɤɨɝɨ ɬɢɬɪɨɜɚɧɢɹ"
6.Ʉɚɤ ɨɩɪɟɞɟɥɢɬɶ ɫɬɟɩɟɧɶ ɢ ɤɨɧɫɬɚɧɬɭ ɞɢɫɫɨɰɢɚɰɢɢ ɫɥɚɛɨɝɨ ɷɥɟɤɬɪɨɥɢɬɚ"
7.Ʉɚɤɢɟ ɩɪɟɢɦɭɳɟɫɬɜɚ ɭ ɦɟɬɨɞɚ ɜɵɫɨɤɨɱɚɫɬɨɬɧɨɣ ɤɨɧɞɭɤɬɨɦɟɬɪɢɢ"
Ʌɚɛɨɪɚɬɨɪɧɚɹ ɪɚɛɨɬɚ ʋ
Ʉɨɧɞɭɤɬɨɦɟɬɪɢɱɟɫɤɨɟ ɨɩɪɟɞɟɥɟɧɢɟ ɫɬɟɩɟɧɢ ɢ ɤɨɧɫɬɚɧɬɵ
ɷɥɟɤɬɪɨɥɢɬɢɱɟɫɤɨɣ ɞɢɫɫɨɰɢɚɰɢɢ ɫɥɚɛɨɝɨ ɷɥɟɤɬɪɨɥɢɬɚ
ɐɟɥɶ ɪɚɛɨɬɵ ɢɡɭɱɢɬɶ ɜɥɢɹɧɢɟ ɤɨɧɰɟɧɬɪɚɰɢɢ ɫɥɚɛɨɝɨ ɷɥɟɤɬɪɨɥɢɬɚ ɧɚ ɢɡ ɦɟɧɟɧɢɟ ɜɟɥɢɱɢɧɵ ɫɬɟɩɟɧɢ ɢ ɤɨɧɫɬɚɧɬɵ ɞɢɫɫɨɰɢɚɰɢɢ
Ɉɛɨɪɭɞɨɜɚɧɢɟ ɤɨɧɞɭɤɬɨɦɟɬɪ ɫɬɚɤɚɧɵ ɟɦɤɨɫɬɶɸ ɦɥ Ɋɟɚɤɬɢɜɵ ɪɚɫɬɜɨɪɵ ɋɇ ɋɈɈɇ ɧɟɫɤɨɥɶɤɢɯ ɤɨɧɰɟɧɬɪɚɰɢɣ ɩɨ ɭɤɚɡɚɧɢɸ
ɩɪɟɩɨɞɚɜɚɬɟɥɹ ɨɬ ɧ ɞɨ ɧ Cɇ ɋɈɈɇ
ɉɨɪɹɞɨɤ ɜɵɩɨɥɧɟɧɢɹ ɪɚɛɨɬɵ
Ɋɚɫɬɜɨɪɵ ɪɚɡɧɨɣ ɤɨɧɰɟɧɬɪɚɰɢɢ ɭɤɫɭɫɧɨɣ ɤɢɫɥɨɬɵ ɧɚɥɢɬɶ ɜ ɫɬɚɤɚɧɵ ɩɨɨɱɟɪɟɞɧɨ ɢɡɦɟɪɢɬɶ ɭɞɟɥɶɧɭɸ ɷɥɟɤɬɪɨɩɪɨɜɨɞɧɨɫɬɶ Ȥ ɜ ɫɨɨɬɜɟɬɫɬɜɢɢ ɫ ɢɧ ɫɬɪɭɤɰɢɟɣ ɤ ɩɪɢɛɨɪɭ ɩɪɢɥ ɡɚɩɢɫɚɬɶ ɩɨɤɚɡɚɧɢɹ ɜ ɬɚɛɥɢɰɭ ɗɥɟɤɬɪɨɞ ɞɥɹ ɨɩɪɟɞɟɥɟɧɢɹ ɷɥɟɤɬɪɨɩɪɨɜɨɞɧɨɫɬɢ ɩɪɟɞɜɚɪɢɬɟɥɶɧɨ ɩɟɪɟɞ ɤɚɠɞɵɦ ɢɡɦɟɪɟɧɢɟɦ ɩɪɨ ɦɵɬɶ ɞɢɫɬɢɥɥɢɪɨɜɚɧɧɨɣ ɜɨɞɨɣ ɨɛɫɭɲɢɬɶ ɮɢɥɶɬɪɨɜɚɥɶɧɨɣ ɛɭɦɚɝɨɣ ɩɨɝɪɭɡɢɬɶ ɷɥɟɤɬɪɨɞ ɜ ɪɚɫɬɜɨɪ ɩɨɥɧɨɫɬɶɸ ɞɨ ɜɟɪɯɧɟɣ ɝɪɚɧɢɰɵ ɷɥɟɤɬɪɨɞɚ
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Ɋɚɫɫɱɢɬɚɬɶ ɷɤɜɢɜɚɥɟɧɬɧɭɸ ɷɥɟɤɬɪɨɩɪɨɜɨɞɧɨɫɬɶ ɪɚɫɬɜɨɪɚ
ɉ = ː ,
ɝɞɟ Ȥ – ɭɞɟɥɶɧɚɹ ɷɥɟɤɬɪɨɩɪɨɜɨɞɧɨɫɬɶ ɋɦ ɦ ɋɧ – ɦɨɥɹɪɧɚɹ ɤɨɧɰɟɧɬɪɚɰɢɹ ɷɤɜɢɜɚɥɟɧɬɨɜ ɦɨɥɶ-ɷɤɜ ɥ.
Ɋɚɫɫɱɢɬɚɬɶ ɫɬɟɩɟɧɶ ɷɥɟɤɬɪɨɥɢɬɢɱɟɫɤɨɣ ɞɢɫɫɨɰɢɚɰɢɢ Į
Ƚ = = ,
ʙ ʏ
ɝɞɟ Ȝv – ɷɤɜɢɜɚɥɟɧɬɧɚɹ ɷɥɟɤɬɪɨɩɪɨɜɨɞɧɨɫɬɶ ɋɦÂɦ2 ɤɦɨɥɶ lɄ– ɩɨɞɜɢɠɧɨɫɬɶ ɤɚɬɢɨɧɚ ɋɦÂɦ2 ɤɦɨɥɶ ɩɪɢɥ 1 ɬɚɛɥ lȺ– ɩɨɞɜɢɠɧɨɫɬɶ ɚɧɢɨɧɚ ɋɦÂɦ2 ɤɦɨɥɶ ɩɪɢɥ 1 ɬɚɛɥ
Ȝ – ɷɥɟɤɬɪɨɩɪɨɜɨɞɧɨɫɬɶ ɩɪɢ ɛɟɫɤɨɧɟɱɧɨɦ ɪɚɡɛɚɜɥɟɧɢɢ ɋɦÂɦ2 ɤɦɨɥɶ
Ɋɚɫɫɱɢɬɚɬɶ ɤɨɧɫɬɚɧɬɭ ɷɥɟɤɬɪɨɥɢɬɢɱɟɫɤɨɣ ɞɢɫɫɨɰɢɚɰɢɢ Ʉ
ʙ = ήʠː .
Ɉɛɪɚɛɨɬɤɚ ɷɤɫɩɟɪɢɦɟɧɬɚɥɶɧɵɯ ɞɚɧɧɵɯ
18
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ɪɚɫɬɜɨɪɚ
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1. Ɉɮɨɪɦɢɬɶ ɪɟɡɭɥɶɬɚɬɵ ɨɩɵɬɨɜ ɜ ɜɢɞɟ ɬɚɛɥɢɰɵ 9.
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Ɍɚɛɥɢɰɚ 9 |
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Ɋɟɡɭɥɶɬɚɬɵ ɷɤɫɩɟɪɢɦɟɧɬɚ |
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Ʉɨɧɰɟɧɬɪɚɰɢɹ |
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Ȥ |
ȜV |
Ȝ |
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ɋɇ ɋɈɈɇ |
ɋɦ ɦ |
ɋɦÂɦ2 ɤɦɨɥɶ |
ɋɦÂɦ2 ɤɦɨɥɶ |
Į |
Ʉ |
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ɦɨɥɶ-ɷɤɜ ɥ |
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ɋɞɟɥɚɬɶ ɜɵɜɨɞ ɨ ɡɚɜɢɫɢɦɨɫɬɢ ɫɬɟɩɟɧɢ ɢ ɤɨɧɫɬɚɧɬɵ ɞɢɫɫɨɰɢɚɰɢɢ ɨɬ ɤɨɧ ɰɟɧɬɪɚɰɢɢ ɪɚɫɬɜɨɪɚ