Профессионально ориентированный перевод. Учебное пособие [для студентов специальности 45.05.01 «Перевод и переводоведение», специализации «Профессиона

responsible for reworking Waddell's invention into a rational, well-integrated design. In its essential form and dynamics, the "Waddell and Harrington version" remained true to the original 1892 design. Before the partnership dissolved in 1914, Waddell and Harrington designed about 30 vertical-lift spans for highway and railroad crossings. After they parted company, both men continued to work in the field, and Harrington's new office, Harrington, Howard, and Ash, became particularly well known, as was its successor, Ash, Howard, Needles and Tammen. Six vertical-lift highway bridges were constructed in Minnesota and Wisconsin before World War II. At least 5 were designed by Waddell and Harrington or successor firms. All were of the standard Waddell and Harrington type. The 1931 Stillwater Bridge was the last of this cohort to be completed. Its predecessor at the site was a timber, pontoon, Swing Bridge built in 1910. Owned and maintained by the City of Stillwater, the bridge was taken over by the Minnesota Department of Highways in 1925. By that time, the structure was fast deteriorating so as to be a source of apprehension for the safety of the loads it is obliged to carry. When the bridge was closed to heavy traffic in 1928, the Minnesota Department of Highways prepared preliminary plans for its replacement. These plans called for a series of fixed concrete-slab and steel-truss spans, which were to be designed by the Minnesota highway agency itself, and a single vertical-lift span, which was to be the responsibility of an engineering firm specializing in such work. In November, 1929, a design contract for $3,150 was awarded, on a competitive basis, to Ash, Howard, Needles and Tammen of Kansas City, Missouri. Construction on the bridge proper began the following summer, with the Minneapolis firm of Peppard and Fulton serving as general contractor and the American Bridge Company (Minneapolis and Gary plants) serving as fabricator. The project was completed in August, 1931, for a total cost of $460,174, shared on an approximately 50-50 basis by the states of Minnesota and Wisconsin.

At the time of the bridge's completion, the St. Croix River was only lightly used as a navigable waterway. Since most of the traffic was small craft, there was little occasion to operate the lift span, as the Minnesota Department of Highways noted in a 1938 letter, "for several years not a single request for its opening was received." Although the bridge was far more intensely involved in highway traffic, it was in the role of maintaining,

111

rather than initiating, patterns of transportation, which, in fact, were already well established by the 1930s. The bridge does have significance, however, as a rare type of engineering construction. Only six vertical-lift highway bridges were built in Minnesota and Wisconsin prior to World War II, and the Stillwater Bridge is one of the three that still survives.

DECORATIVE CHARACTER OF MODERN PLASTIC FLOOR

COVERINGS

Thermoplastics are artificial compounds which at certain processing temperatures may be shaped as often as required. The basic substance, polyvinyl chloride, is a tasteless and odourless powder. Through the addition of softeners in the finishing process the flexible, break-proof plastic material is obtained.

With “Pegulan” the completely homogenous floor covering results from the fusion of a number of calendared plastic folia. The material is built up in layers, and by virtue of its practically indestructible surface offers great resistance to wear and tear. Testimonials from several scientific institutes confirm the excellent material qualities of the covering.

Long life, decorative effect, and simple and inexpensive maintenance are the qualities expected from a floor covering. This material meets these demands to a high degree, while the range of colours and the qualities of the material are eminently suited to contemporary interior decorative art.

Well chosen tints in the home should help to promote comfort, good temper and efficiency. The many possible combinations of surface which present themselves allow of the achievement of a well balanced effect even when an arrangement of strong tints is chosen.

This plastic floor covering is available in length approximately 55 and 60 in. (140 and 150 cm.) wide, and in tiles approximately 11½ and 13½ in. (29 and 34 cm.) square. There are many tasteful shades.

The covering, by virtue of its nonporous surface is readily kept clean and meets all the demands of modern hygiene. It is ready for use as soon as it is laid. The high durability of the durelastic p.v.c. material is particularly valuable where heavy wear is anticipated.

In addition, this floor covering is heat insulating, noiseless, elastic, slip proof and lightand flame-resistant. It resists alkalis, acids, oils and fats. It is

112

easily cared for and kept clean, a small amount of polish and a dry mop being all that is needed to impart a shine.

CONSTRUCTION FIRE SAFETY

by Mat Chibbaro, P.E.

Buildings of all types, while under construction, renovation or demolition, are both more susceptible to fire and at greater risk of the effects of fire. A wide variety of ignition sources increase the likelihood of fires starting. Concentrations of combustible materials, incomplete compartmentation and other passive systems, and unfinished fire protection systems allow fire to spread unimpeded. Wind conditions can increase the rapidity of fire spread.

This places at greater risk the workers occupying such buildings and the emergency responders that may be called upon to operate within or near them. Accident statistics and reports tell a tale of many construction workers being killed or maimed over the years by fires and explosions. In May 2008, 14 employees were injured in a natural gas explosion in a hotel under construction in California.

In 2007, two fire-fighters were killed at a fire incident during the demolition of the Deutsche Bank Building in New York City.

Typically, building and fire codes, such as those promulgated by the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) and the International Code Council (ICC), contain comprehensive lists of the provisions that are to be followed during construction. However, being model standards or codes, they tend to focus more on the "what," and give less attention to the "who," "how" and "when" of implementation. This article presents protection and prevention features of different phases in construction, and discusses ways that the fire protection engineering profession may contribute to efficient and effective implementation of these features.

Building Alliances

An important concept affecting the efficiency of a project is the creation of lines of communication between the various stakeholders.

First, a fire protection engineer can serve as a liaison between disciplines. There is a network of fire safety-related interrelationships between structural fire protection; architectural layout; mechanical, HVACR

113

and plumbing systems; fire suppression systems; electrical features; and fire alarm, detection and control systems. The fire protection engineer is in a unique position to understand how these items work together to achieve overall fire safety goals and thereby work to coordinate them.

The fire protection engineer can also consult the owner on various concepts. One is the plan for partial occupancy if the owner expects to do this in stages. In some cases, the owner or their insurer will desire protection above and beyond what the fire and building codes require.

Two critical alliances that must be built early, and maintained through a project's life, are those that link the design team with both the code authorities and the emergency response organization in the project's jurisdiction. In some cases, this can be done with one alliance - when the code authority has the ability to speak for the responders within the same fire department or fire brigade. Certainly, the two roles are different - code authorities need to do enforcement, while the responders are in need of information for preincident planning.

Early and regular contact with code authorities can establish communication that is vital to efficient incorporation of code requirements, both those that address construction hazards and those that apply to the finished building. Jurisdictions frequently have amendments to the model codes. Both the base codes and local amendments can be interpreted to accommodate a wide array of sites and structures. The earlier the authority's interpretations and expectations can be learned, the more efficiently the design and construction phases can proceed. This, in turn, translates into cost savings for the owner or developer and valuable time saved for all parties.

Emergency responders face significant challenges during a fire situation in any occupied building. They must deal with an extremely dynamic environment, with limited information on the fire, its byproducts and the building occupants. These challenges are compounded in a building under construction because the protection features and systems are constantly changing, as is the building itself. The more information they have at hand when an incident occurs, the better their decision-making can be, especially during a rapidly unfolding situation.

114

FIRE PROTECTION DURING CONSTRUCTION

Fires are rarely sympathetic to any environment and can quickly destroy weeks, if not months of workmanship during a construction project. It is therefore crucially important that some often simple steps are taken to ensure your project takes the necessary precautions to prevent fire.

Keeping the construction area as clear as possible, particularly when left unattended, should be a key consideration on every foreman's list. Reducing the amount of debris and combustible materials both within the build site and around its immediate boundaries can prevent a fire starting from a loose spark. Clearing the site of these materials should be carried out as often as practicable.

Many fires are started within the roof space of a build therefore it is important to prevent such an occurrence as much as possible. Do this by selecting materials that are fire resistant or do not combust such as Class A asphalt shingles, metal, cement or concrete products.

There are some design considerations as well which could be taken into account. For example, smaller panes and double glazed windows are much more effective in preventing the spread of fire from one room or building to another (providing the windows are built to the appropriate government and construction industry standards).

During the build process, be sure to use surface protection products in both the protection of the finished floor, wall or door, but also with consideration to the prevention of fire. There are numerous products on the market but not all are flame retardant. Why take the risk?

Carpet protection is one of the most common forms of surface protection as carpets are often the most easily of damaged finishings during the final stages of a build. This is perhaps one of the most important areas to ensure fire protection because a fire at this stage of a build is likely to destroy much more than just the carpet.

Prevention is always better than cure, no more so than in the avoidance of fire in the construction industry. Make sure this does not happen to your project by following some simple steps and choosing the right protection products.

115

FIRE ALARM SYSTEM INTERFACES

For many years, building fire alarm systems have been used to provide interfaces with building systems beyond the HVAC system interfaces. One example of such interfaces involves signals being sent from the fire alarm system to the building’s elevator control equipment to initiate Phase I emergency operations (or “elevator recall,” as it is commonly referred to within the United States) and return elevators to a designated level for occupant safety and to ensure elevator availability for emergency responders. Another example of fire alarm system integration is where the fire alarm system sends signals to a building’s security system to disable electronic locking devices in the means of egress pathway where such locks are permitted during nonemergency times to restrict the travel of occupants within a building.

Fire alarm systems have been successfully interfaced with other building systems to improve the overall level of safety in large assembly occupancy spaces, such as theatres and large entertainment facilities. In these buildings, it can be difficult for a fire alarm system to draw the attention of an otherwise-occupied person in the building. To address this, fire alarm systems are often interfaced to disable both the use of public address systems and the use of light-dimming equipment. Disabling these systems allows the fire alarm system to be heard and provides an adequate level of illumination for safe occupant egress when evacuation of a space becomes necessary.

BEST ECONOMIC SYSTEM: THE CRITERIA

Among others, there are seven criteria in determining the best economic system.

Abundance

There is abundance when the members of the society experienced satisfaction, mass poverty was eliminated, goods and services are sufficient, no problems in food, clothing, shelter, medicine, education and in recreation.

Growth

The quantitative changes in the economy signify economic growth. As earlier mentioned, economic growth is present when the society acquires greater productive capacity which can be used for consumption or investment. For example, increase in terms of the number of buildings, houses, schools, cars, hospitals, factories or machinery made in a given year.

116

Stability

When inflation and unemployment are absent in that country then we can say that their economic system is the best because this means that their economic condition is stable.

Security

When there is an assurance of not losing their jobs there follows the security.

Efficiency

It occurs when the opportunity cost (the value of the next best opportunity to a good or to some activity) of some specific amounts of goods is at the lowest possible value and when maximum production from given sources and cost is achieved.

Justice and equity

It is clearly seen when there is fair distribution of income and power among the members of the society. These can be proven when there is sufficient opportunity for job seekers and people had improved their social and economic conditions.

Economic freedom

When consumers are free to choose their food, style of house, education, recreation and etc. then we can say that there is economic freedom. Businessmen are free to invest their money; however this freedom is construed not to violate legal and moral values.

MIXED ECONOMY

The term “mixed economy” arose in the context of political debate in the United Kingdom in the postwar period, although the set of policies later associated with the term had been advocated from at least the 1930s. Supporters of the mixed economy, including R. H. Tawney, Anthony Crosland and Andrew Shonfield were mostly associated with the British Labour Party, although similar views were expressed by Conservatives including Harold Macmillan.

Critics of the British mixed economy, including Ludwig von Mises and Friedrich von Hayek, argued that what is called a mixed economy is a move toward socialism and increasing the influence of the state.

117

The term mixed economy is used to describe economic systems which stray from the ideals of either the market, or various planned economies, and “mix” with elements of each other. As most political-economic ideologies are defined in an idealized sense, what is described rarely if ever exists in practice. Most would not consider it unreasonable to label an economy that, while not being a perfect representation, very closely resembles an ideal by applying the rubric that denominates that ideal. However, when a system in question diverges to a significant extent from an idealized economic model or ideology, the task of identifying it can become problematic. Hence, the term “mixed economy” was coined. As it is unlikely that an economy will contain a perfectly even mix, mixed economies are usually noted as being skewed towards either private ownership or public ownership, toward capitalism or socialism, or toward a market economy or command economy in varying degrees.

There is not a consensus on which economies are capitalist, socialist, or mixed. It may be argued that the historical tendency of power holders in all times and places to limit the activities of market actors combined with the natural impossibility of monitoring and constraining all market actors has resulted in the fact that, as we understand a “mixed economy” being a combination of governmental enterprise and free-enterprise, nearly every economy to develop in human history meets this definition.

The elements of a mixed economy typically include a variety of freedoms:

to possess means of production (farms, factories, stores, etc.)

to participate in managerial decisions (cooperative and participatory economics)

to travel (needed to transport all the items in commerce, to make deals in person, for workers and owners to go to where needed)

to buy (items for personal use, for resale; buy whole enterprises to make the organization that creates wealth a form of wealth itself)

to sell (same as buy)

to hire (to create organizations that create wealth)

to fire (to maintain organizations that create wealth)

118

to organize (private enterprise for profit, labour unions, workers' and professional associations, non-profit groups, religions, etc.)

to communicate (free speech, newspapers, books, advertisements, make deals, create business partners, create markets)

to protest peacefully (marches, petitions, sue the government, make laws friendly to profit making and workers alike, remove pointless inefficiencies to maximize wealth creation)

WHAT IS CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT?

Construction Management is a professional management practice consisting of an array of services applied to construction projects and programs through the planning, design, construction and post construction phases for the purpose of achieving project objectives including the management of quality, cost, time and scope.

Construction Management is a discipline and management system specifically created to promote the successful execution of capital projects for owners. These projects can be highly complex. Few owners maintain the staff resources necessary to pay close, continuing attention to every detail--yet these details can “make or break” a project.

A professional CM can augment the owner's staff with pre-planning, design, construction, engineering and management expertise that can assure the best possible project outcome no matter what type of project delivery method used.

“Agency” CM is a professional service that can be applied to all delivery systems where the CM acts as the owner's principal agent in the management of a construction project or program, where the CM is responsible to the owner for managing the planning, design, construction and post construction phases, or portions thereof. The CM represents the interests of the project in its dealings with other construction professionals, and with other private and public entities.

Optimum use of available funds

Control of the scope of the work

Project scheduling

Optimum use of design and construction firms' skills and talents

Avoidance of delays, changes and disputes

119

Enhancing project design and construction quality

Optimum flexibility in contracting and procurement Comprehensive management of every stage of the project, beginning

with the original concept and project definition, yields the greatest possible benefit to owners from Construction Management.

“At-risk” CM is a delivery method which entails a commitment by the construction manager to deliver the project within a Guaranteed Maximum Price (GMP). The construction manager acts as consultant to the owner in the development and design phases, but as the equivalent of a general contractor during the construction phase. When a construction manager is bound to a GMP, the most fundamental character of the relationship is changed. In addition to acting in the owner's interest, the construction manager also protects him/herself.

CONSTRUCTION MANAGERS: NATURE OF THE WORK

Construction managers plan, direct, coordinate, and budget a wide variety of construction projects, including the building of all types of residential, commercial, and industrial structures, roads, bridges, wastewater treatment plants, and schools and hospitals. Construction managers may supervise an entire project or just part of one. They schedule and coordinate all design and construction processes, including the selection, hiring, and oversight of specialty trade contractors, such as carpentry, plumbing, or electrical, but they usually do not do any actual construction of the structure.

Construction managers are salaried or self-employed managers who oversee construction supervisors and personnel. They are often called project managers, constructors, construction superintendents, project engineers, construction supervisors, or general contractors. Construction managers may be owners or salaried employees of a construction management or contracting firm, or they may work under contract or as a salaried employee of the property owner, developer, or contracting firm managing the construction project.

These managers coordinate and supervise the construction process from the conceptual development stage through final construction, making sure that the project gets completed on time and within budget. They often work with owners, engineers, architects, and others who are involved in the

120