Профессионально ориентированный перевод. Учебное пособие [для студентов специальности 45.05.01 «Перевод и переводоведение», специализации «Профессиона
.pdfexps – expenses — издержки, расходы
F – Fahrenheit — температурная шкала Фаренгейта
FM – frequency modulated — частотной модуляцией f. – foot, feet — фут, футы
f.p.m. – feet per minute — футов в минуту
f/s – factor of safety — коэффициент безопасности, запас прочности
h. – 1. hour — час; 2. hundred — сто hf. – half — половина
Hi-Fi, hi-fi – high-fidelity — высокая точность h.p. – horse power — лошадиная сила
HVAC = Heating Ventilating Air Conditioning — отопление,
вентиляция и кондиционирование воздуха i. = in. – inch — дюйм
ibid — там же
i.e. – that is (id est – лат.) — то есть kg – kilogram — килограмм
km – kilometer — километр kw. – kilowatt — киловатт
kwhr – kilowatt-hour — киловатт-час lb. – pound — фунт (453,6 г)
m. – meter — метр
max. – maximum — максимум mi. – mile — миля
mm. – millimeter — миллиметр
m.p. – melting point — точка плавления m.p.h. – miles per hour — миль в час
m.v. – market value — рыночная стоимость
n. – 1. net — (вес) нетто; 2. number — число; 3. note — заметка,
примечание
NB – nota bene — обратить внимание obj. — цель, объект
P. = p. – 1. power — сила; 2. pressure — давление per se — по существу
p.m. — post meridiem (лат.) после полудня
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pis. – pounds per square inch — фунтов на квадратный дюйм q.v. — quod vide смотри (там-то)
resp. – respectively — соответственно
spec. – 1. special — специальный; 2. specific — определённый,
специфический, удельный
sq.ft. – square foot — квадратный фут syst. – system — система
temp – temperature — температура temp. – temporary — временный
UV – ultraviolet — ультрафиолетовый
var. – various — различный, разнообразный viz – videlicet (лат.) — а именно
vs. – versus (лат.) — против, в сравнении с v.s. – vide supra (лат.) — смотри выше v.v. – vice versa — наоборот
w. – with — с
X – experimental — экспериментальный yd. – yard — ярд
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ПРИЛОЖЕНИЕ 2
ТЕКСТЫ ДЛЯ САМОСТОЯТЕЛЬНОЙ РАБОТЫ
WHAT IS BUILDING SCIENCE?
Introduction to Building Science
Civil engineering is the main branch of engineering that is concerned with the construction of buildings and other structures. But civil engineering alone is not implemented in the construction of buildings. Various other streams of engineering like mechanical engineering, soil engineering, aeronautical engineering, etc. are also equally involved.
To illustrate the involvement of other streams of engineering in building sciences let us take an example. When a dam or a very tall skyscraper is built, first the construction site is thoroughly analyzed for the nature and type of soil or ground, the level of the water table is checked, the seismic zone under which it comes is checked so that the building is built accordingly making it resistant to earthquakes to a certain extent; simulation tests are carried out in labs to check how stable and safe the structure will be once it is constructed and likewise so many other tests are done before the first brick is laid. Thus soil engineering, mechanical engineering and various other branches of engineering play a vital role along with civil engineering in the construction of buildings. Together they are called building sciences. Therefore building sciences are concerned with ensuring that various parameters are taken care of and dealt with, before and while a building is being constructed. This article focuses how various engineering streams play an important role in building sciences.
A Real Life Example of the Application of Building Sciences and How Other Streams of Engineering is Vital in Building Sciences:
Taipei 101, the world's second tallest building uses mass dampers for the stability of the building. For such a humongous structure, its stability plays an important role and so does safety and the investment of millions of dollars. The usage of mass dampers ensures this to a certain extent. Before the construction of the building, the ground was tested for how soft the ground was and whether it was sensitive to many seismic activities or not. While the building was being constructed, it was designed in such a way that
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the airflow around it is good and it doesn't make the building sway too much and cause too much strain on various parts of the building. Thus, mechanical engineering, aerodynamics, soil engineering and other sciences too were involved while the building was being constructed. This is what Building Sciences are all about.
How Various Engineering Streams Play a Vital Role in Building Science? The various factors that affect the buildings are:
Stress and Strain: The buildings are affected by naturally occurring phenomenon like winds at high speeds, storms, torrential rain, flood, etc. When this happens, the stress and strain experienced by the building is increased significantly. So building sciences use mechanical engineering to simulate the stress and strain experienced by the building and thereby use appropriate construction materials while constructing them thereby ensuring that the stress and strain on the building don't lead to any significant damage to the structure and damage it.
Stability: The center of gravity of the building should lie low so that the building doesn't start leaning and eventually lose its stability. Leaning tower of Pisa is a perfect example for this case. It is one of those cases where building sciences were not implemented and that led to the building being not stable and causing it to lean. The reason behind it is the ground on which it is built is very soft for such a huge structure which has led to its leaning position. Modern advancements in building sciences have led to the restoration of the angle of the building so that it doesn't tip over.
Resistance to Earthquakes: The Bird's Nest, which hosted the 2008 Olympics had a unique structure at its base so that it could resist earthquakes of high degrees. The foundation was engineered in such a way that a major part of the vibrations are damped and isolated at the foundation itself and is distributed uniformly so that the disturbances or vibrations do not affect the building as a whole. Principles such as base isolation and dissipation systems are used to prevent any damage of high degree from minor earthquakes.
Aerodynamics: While constructing bridges over rivers, like the Hangzhou bay bridge which is affected by winds at high speeds, the components used while building the bridge are designed in such a way that the flow of air around the bridge is fluid and it doesn't resist the air flow
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around the bridge. Thus the bridge is rendered safe and doesn't sway when the speed of wind increases.
The Mechanical Strength of the Structure: When buildings and structures are built, the mechanical structure of the building is very important as this is what forms the skeletal structure of the building or a structure. Every other component and part is built over this mechanical structure. Eiffel tower and Milau bridge are excellent examples of the efficient integration of civil and mechanical engineering. Eiffel tower built in the late 19th century is still standing and thanks to some really good implementation of mechanical engineering, it is not bothered by any natural disasters except for a few wear and tears that have been checked and restored.
There are many other structures that are standing and are great examples of building sciences but they are out of the scope of this article as this is just an overview of what building sciences are and why, where and how they are applied.
Thus, building sciences are very important in today's world in the construction of a building irrespective of its size.
GEOMETRY OF BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION
The four kinds of bridges and some combinations
A.The beam or truss bridge is, in effect, a pair of girders supporting a deck spanning the gap between two piers. Such a beam has to withstand both compression in its upper parts and tension in its lower parts. Where it passes over supports, other forces come into play. A beam may be a hollow box girder or an open frame or truss.
B.An arch bridge can be designed so that no part of it has to withstand tension. Concrete is well suited to arched bridge design. When reinforced concrete is used, a more elegant and sometimes less costly arch can be designed and most concrete arch bridges are reinforced.
C.A suspension bridge consists, basically, of a deck suspended from cables slung between high towers. The cables of high tensile steel wire can support an immense weight. The towers are in compression and the deck, often consisting of a long slender truss (used as a hollow beam), is supported at frequent intervals along its length.
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D. A cantilever bridge is generally carried by two beams, each supported at one end. Unlike a simple beam supported at both ends, the cantilever must resist tension in its upper half and compression in its lower. A fifth type arrived on the scene in 1952 the first modern cable-stayed bridges were built in Germany and Sweden. There are also many other composite forms of bridges. The bridle-chord bridge is a combination of a long beam (usually a trussed girder) partially supported by steel wires from a tower at one end, or from towers at each end. Most cantilever bridges are designed so that a gap remains between two cantilevered arms that reach out from their abutments: the gap is bridged by a simple beam.
HISTORY OF BRIDGES
Bridge study has revealed that people have been carrying out bridge construction since humans first assembled into groups. The initial bridge design was basically felled trees that were utilized for moving over the ditches and rivers, and concrete bridges were rare. With the advance of civilization, techniques were discovered to use rocks, stones, mortar, and other materials for the creation of stronger and extended bridges. Subsequently, as the engineers and physicists advanced in the design, materials, and construction technology, modern materials like steel and aluminum were introduced for bridges.
Bridge Construction during 20th Century
The bridge construction skills progressed rapidly during the 20th century. At the end of the century, new techniques were developed that improved the design, strength, and durability of the bridges. Steel bridges were strongly riveted instead of the previous practice of using bolts. Concrete bridges were being cast at the desired place, instead of being precast. Huge bridge elements made from bars and small sections were used, and not rolled as one part. Before the 1980s, the majority of bridge designs included expansion joints for decks, including expansion and fixed support bearings. This technique was used to permit structural expansion and contraction. However, the expansion joints are likely to be filled with debris, and bearings often weaken over time. Thus, the structure is hardened, and maintenance requirements are increased. The bridge engineers explored methods to reduce this trouble, and finally the expansion joints and bearings were eliminated to
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develop a joint-less bridge. This type of bridge is constructed on a flexible foundation that may expand or contract with negligible trouble.
Modern Bridge Construction Techniques
New technologies are expected to meet the challenging and varying requirements, and also offer options that will guide to innovative engineering and bridge construction standards. With the beginning of the new century, bridge construction is being revolutionized. Modern construction methods and the latest advanced materials are being evolved. Construction technologies like post tensioning, reinforced ground walls, and soil freezing are being developed. Modern surveying techniques are being used that have facilitated the soil selection, and other design parameters, through the use of optical and infrared technology. Progress in the deck technology is creating lighter and stronger decks. Bearings, joints, and seismic elements have become more effective since advanced testing facilities have been introduced. Consistent, economical, fast, and programmed inspection systems will emerge.
New Bridge Construction Materials
Materials with improved characteristics will be used that will make the bridge construction safe, durable, and reliable. Materials like highperformance concretes, polymer concretes, and plastics will be utilized. As the fiber reinforced composites are becoming more tolerant towards temperature, they will be used extensively for bridge construction. Use of larger steel fibers will be used in the tensioned members. The economics of future bridge construction will implement a simple design, with an increased interface between design, erection, and maintenance. Progressive study in modern superior materials and management techniques will facilitate the construction of durable structures that do not require extensive maintenance.
STILLWATER BRIDGE
The Stillwater Bridge, featuring a counterweighted, cable-and-tower design, embodies engineering significance as a rare surviving example of vertical-lift highway bridge construction of the Waddell and Harrington type. The significance of the Stillwater Bridge is best evaluated within the general context of Minnesota and Wisconsin movable highway bridges.
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Historic Significance
Movable bridges, also known as drawbridges, are constructed over navigable waterways when it is impractical or uneconomical to build fixed bridges of sufficient height to permit the passage of vessels. Human ingenuity has devised numerous systems for lifting, dropping, folding, rotating and retracting a span to provide temporary clearance. By the early 20th century, however, engineers had focused their attention on three, basic drawbridge categories: swing, bascule and vertical lift. Briefly defined, a swing span revolves in a horizontal plane around a vertical axis, a bascule span rotates in a vertical plane around a horizontal axis and a vertical-lift span rises and descends in a vertical plane.
In Minnesota and Wisconsin, as well as elsewhere in the nation, virtually all 19th century movable bridges were of the swing-span variety and the type continued to be constructed during the early 20th century. As late as 1935, a total of 51 highway swing spans were in operation in the Minnesota and Wisconsin. Not one of these structures survived. The demise of the highway swing span was nation-wide, reflecting its growing incompatibility with an urban setting. There were two basic problems with swing spans. First, the central pivot pier increasingly became an obstruction to navigation for the ever-larger vessels of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Second, the swing span itself squandered valuable space. By requiring a clear turning radius, it prohibited the development of docking facilities adjacent to the bridge site. These shortcomings were especially onerous along highly industrialized urban waterways, where shipping channels tended to be narrow, highway crossings numerous and real estate prices high. For less crowded sites, the swing span remained a viable form of technology well into the 20th century, Most surviving swing spans, for example, are railroad bridges in rural regions or in relatively uncongested urban areas. But in the downtown waterfronts of the late 20th century American cities, the swing span was marked for extinction. Its major adversary was the federal government.
No matter how loudly shipping and real-estate interests might denounce the swing span, there were no effective means of regulating movable-bridge design until the early 1890s, when Congress authorized the War Department to approve plans for all new bridges over navigable
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waterways and to seek the alteration of any existing bridge that interfered with "reasonably free, easy and unobstructed" navigation. In 1892, the War Department sent a clear message of future policy by way of Chicago, demanding the removal of a two-year-old swing span from one crossing of the Chicago River and denying permission to build a new swing span at another. The search for an alternate drawbridge technology began in earnest. Not surprisingly, Chicago was in the vanguard. In 1895, municipal authorities spanned the Chicago River at South Halsted Street with the world's first, modern vertical-lift bridge.
During the middle decades of the 19th century, an occasional verticallift span was constructed in Europe and the United States. Although their engineering was often ingenious, the bridges themselves were quite modest, designed mainly for canals and small navigable streams in cases where it was only necessary to lift the spans a few feet to clear traffic in the channels. The modern, long-span, high-rise vertical-lift bridge dates from the last decade of the 19th century. In 1892, Duluth, Minnesota, hosted a design competition for constructing a drawbridge over its harbor entrance on Lake Superior, which comprised a clear channel 250 feet in width. Under the rules of the competition, the successful design would leave the entire width of the canal free to passing vessels, which effectively eliminated traditional, center-pier swing spans.
Most responses to the Duluth competition employed some form of "sliding draw" mechanism, whereby the span moved back and forth on rollers. A striking exception was a design submitted, and later patented, by John Alexander Low Waddell (1854–1938). Waddell was a consulting engineer based in Kansas City, Missouri, who, during the next 40 years, would become one of the best-known bridge engineers in the United States. Waddell proposed to build a vertical lift bridge consisting of a simple truss span 260 feet long so constructed and supported as to allow of being raised vertically to a height of 140 feet above the surface of the canal. The
Engineering News, October 27, 1892, reports on the Waddell entry in the
design competition...
At each end of the movable span is a tower 170 ft. high, carrying at its top built steel pulleys about 15 ft. in diameter. Over these pulleys steel wire ropes, or chain cables, pass. One end of each cable is attached to the end piers
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of the trusses, and end to counter-weights which exactly balance the dead weight of the span. The only work left for the operating machinery is, therefore, to overcome the weight due to dirt, water, snow, etc. The power for operating the bridge is supplied by two electric motors placed at mid-span; the upward and downward motion being regulated by racks and pinions communicating with the power by means of steel shafting and spur and miter wheels.
Although the Duluth authorities selected Waddell's design, the War Department vetoed the construction of any drawbridge at the site at that time. Waddell, however, had devised a seemingly practical solution to the drawbridge problem. His vertical-lift navigation and dockage like a swing span, nor did it clutter up span-did not obstruct the shore approaches like a sliding-draw span. A few months after the cancellation of the Duluth project, the City of Chicago commissioned Waddell to modify his original design for a 130-foot span capable of 150-foot clearance over the Chicago River at South Halsted Street. This structure was completed in 1894.
The South Halsted Street Vertical-Lift Bridge remained the only example of its kind for over a decade. In later years, Waddell commented in the Journal of the Western Society of Engineers, May, 1924, that the long delay in constructing another vertical lift to the knavery of those in charge of subsequent bridge projects, who, as he put it, "demanded boodle...a condition with which [I] never did and never will comply." There were other reasons as well. During the period 1895 to 1905, engineers in Chicago and Milwaukee perfected several bascule designs, which were widely believed to be more economical for narrow waterways than Waddell's vertical lift. The new type received early and strong endorsement from the City of Milwaukee, which built 10 bascule spans between 1902 and 1910.
It was subsequently adopted as the preferred movable-bridge type by the Wisconsin State Highway Commission, organized in 1911 to improve the state's roads and bridges. But the greatest obstacle to the initial acceptance of the vertical-lift span was the fact that the South Halstead Street Bridge contained certain mechanical flaws, which gave it the reputation for heavy first cost and maintenance and expensive operation.
In 1907, Waddell formed a partnership with John Lyle Harrington (1868-1942), a skilled civil and mechanical engineer who was largely
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