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physiologic effects of, 858–859 on adipocytes, 859

on liver, 859 on muscle, 859 on pancreas, 859

radioimmunoassay for, 865, 865f secretion of, 858, 859f structure of, 856f

synthesis of, 856–857, 857f

Thyroid hormone receptors, 196–197, 196f, 305–306, 305f, 306f, 308 Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), 395, 858, 859f

Thyroid testing, 395

Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH), 858, 859f Tiagabine, 967

Ticagrelor, 906

Tight junctions, of blood–brain barrier, 956–957, 956f

Tissue inhibitors of matrix metalloproteinases (TIMPs), 978, 990 Tissue metabolism, 38t, 843–844. See also specific tissues

Tissue plasminogen activator (TPA), 334, 481, 498–499, 687, 903–904, 904f Tissue specialization, 1

Tissue-specific isoforms or isozymes, 81, 90–91 Titration curve, of histidine, 86–87, 87f

T lymphocytes, HIV virus and, 269, 270f TNM staging system, 363

Tobacco, as carcinogen, 240, 361 Tolbutamide, 848

Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL), 13, 14t–15t, 19–20 Topoisomerases, 221, 230, 232, 238t, 282

TORC2 protein, 730

Total iron-binding capacity (TIBC), 295, 876 Toxic goiter, diffuse, 481

Trace minerals, 13, 15

Training, metabolic effects on muscle metabolism, 947–948 Trans-acting proteins, 255

Transactivation response RNA-binding protein (TRBP), 312 Transactivators, 294, 303–304, 304f

Transaldolase, 547–548, 547f, 548f

Transaminases, 144, 145f, 609, 751, 753. See also specific types Transamination, 144, 145f, 753, 753f, 764, 765f

Transcellular water, 48 Transcobalamin I, 797 Transcobalamin II, 797f, 798

Transcribed region of gene, 254, 255f Transcript

polycistronic, 258primary, 251 RNA, 251

Transcription, 161, 169, 211, 211f, 251–271 attenuation of, 294, 300, 300f

availability of genes for, eukaryotic, 301–303 base pairing in, 216–218, 251, 252, 275 corepressors of, 297, 298f

coupled with translation, 258, 267t, 296 definition of, 251

DNA template in, 218, 251, 252–253, 253f enhancers in, 251, 253, 294

in eukaryotes, 251, 253, 255–257, 256f, 259–265, 294, 301–309 exons in, 251, 259, 261, 261f, 262f

5′-to-3′ direction in, 251, 252 frequency of, 253

gene expression regulation in, 211, 294–310 (See also Gene expression regulation) gene recognition in, 254–255

gene sequences in, 254, 255f gene-specific activation of, 197 hypoxia and, 410

inducers of, 294, 297, 304–305

induction of, 161

introns in, 251, 259, 259f, 261, 261f, 262f, 265 iron regulation of, 312, 312f, 314

negative control of, 294, 297 nuclear pores and, 181 positive control of, 294, 297

in prokaryotes (bacteria), 251, 253, 257–258, 258f, 294, 296–300 promoters of, 251, 251f, 252–257, 255f, 256f, 294, 308–309, 309f repression of, 161

repressors of, 256, 294, 296–297, 304–305 RNA polymerases in, 251, 252–257, 253f

splicing reactions in, 251, 261, 261f, 262f, 310, 310f start point of, 251, 251f, 252–253

3′-to-5′ direction in, 251, 252 Transcriptional cascade, 308–309, 309f Transcription-associated factors (TAFs), 257 Transcription-coupled repair, 243 Transcription factors, 303–309

general or basal, 257, 257f, 303

gene-specific, 190, 195–196, 257, 257f, 294, 303–304, 304f in hemoglobin switching, 885–889, 888f

hypoxia and, 410, 445

as oncogenes, 350–351, 350t regulation of, 308

steroid hormone/thyroid hormone receptors, 305–306, 305f, 306f structural motifs of, 306–308, 306f–307f

Transcytosis, receptor-mediated, 958 Transduced cells, 327

Trans-fatty acids, 17, 70, 71f Transfected cells, 327 Transferases, 144

Transferrin, 295, 313–314, 876, 877f, 895t Transferrin receptor, 313, 313f

Transfer RNA (tRNA), 211, 213

aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase recognition sites on, 279, 279f

anticodons of, 213, 225, 263, 264f, 274f, 275–276base modifications in, 264, 265f D-loop of, 263, 264f

prokaryotic, 281, 281f

ribosomal bindings sites for, 280–281, 280f size of molecule, 225

structure of, 213, 225, 263–264, 264f synthesis of

in bacteria, 251, 258, 258f

in eukaryotes, 251, 263–265, 265f promoter for, 264, 264f

translation role of, 225, 263, 274–284 TψC loop of, 263, 264f

variable loop of, 263, 264f Transformed cells, 327, 345–346

Transforming growth factor-β, 202–203, 202f, 362, 928, 992 Transforming growth factor superfamily, 202

Transgenic animals, 335, 337 trans Golgi network, 182 Transient tyrosinemia, 782

Transition state, 128, 132–133, 132f Transition-state analogs, 128, 132–133, 140–142, 141f Transition-state complex, 128, 130, 130f, 132–133 Transition-state theory, 132

Transketolase, 458, 465, 544, 546, 547f, 548, 548f Translation, 91, 161, 211, 211f, 213, 274–284 base pairing in, 216–218, 274, 275

coupled with transcription, 258, 267t, 296 elongation in, 274, 279, 282–284, 282f, 283f gene expression regulation in, 211, 294, 311–313 gene sequences in, 254, 255f

initiation of, 274, 279–281, 280f, 311–312 insulin and, 389

microRNAs and, 312–313 mutation effects on, 277–278

peptide bond formation in, 274, 282f, 283 process of, 279–284, 280f

prokaryotic, 281, 281f, 281t reading frame in, 274, 277, 277f termination of, 274, 279, 283–284 translocation in, 274, 282f, 283 transport and stability in, 313 trauma/sepsis and, 837–838

tRNA in, 225, 263, 274–284

Translocases of the inner membrane (TIM) complex, 475, 475f Translocases of the outer membrane (TOM) complex, 475, 475f Translocations, 243, 244, 244f, 303

in cancer, 345, 347, 348, 348f

in protein synthesis, 274, 282f, 283 Transmembrane proteins, 102, 173, 175–176 collagen as, 980, 982

tertiary structure of, 107–108, 108f Transmissible spongiform encephalopathies, 120 Transpinocytosis, 957

Transport. See also specific modes of transport active, 169, 174, 175f

amino acid, 738

carbohydrate transport via, 415and cell death, 410, 410f energy transformation for, 399–400

Na+-dependent, 415, 426 primary, 177 secondary, 177, 182

passive, 174–175, 175f, 176f

across plasma membrane, 169, 174–178, 175f vesicular, 178

Transporter proteins, 175–178, 176f, 177f Transport pathways, 1

Transport systems, 174

Transport work, energy transformation for, 394, 399–400 Transposase, 245

Transposons, 243, 245, 245f

Transthyretin, 835, 895t

Transverse tubules (T-tubules), 934, 936f Trastuzumab, 349

Trauma

amino acid metabolism in, 823, 823f, 836–838, 838f coagulation in, 898

Trehalase, 415, 419, 420f, 420t, 421 Trehalose, 420f

Triacylglycerols, 3, 6, 62, 591–593, 719 absorption of, 25–26, 26f

digestion of, 25–26, 26f, 594–597, 596f, 632, 632f elevated levels of, 634, 651, 652, 660–662 emulsification of, 25, 594, 596

fasting state, 34, 36–40, 566, 582, 593, 593t

fatty acids released from, 593, 601, 609, 632, 632f, 649–651, 650f, 693 fed state, 24, 24f, 592, 592f, 720–724

formation of, 568

fuel store of, 7, 7t, 29, 566 glucose conversion to, 27, 371, 371f HDL interaction with, 683, 683f

in liver disease, 925 measuring levels of, 723 medium-chain-length, 922–923 in metabolic homeostasis, 379 metabolic syndrome and, 660–662

metabolism of, 591–593, 592f, 593f, 720–726, 918 mixed, 71

mobilization of, 34, 36, 37

packaging of, 598–599, 599f, 632, 632f, 648, 720. See also Chylomicron(s); Lipoprotein(s)

resynthesis (recycling) of, 598, 599f, 650–651 storage of, 632, 649, 650f, 720, 723–724, 723f, 845 structure of, 6, 6f, 70–71, 71f, 594, 595, 595f

synthesis of, 29, 568, 610, 631f, 632, 647–648, 647f, 720–723, 918 transport of, 29, 600–603

Triamcinolone acetonide, 633–634 Tricarboxylate transporter, 496

Tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA cycle), 4f, 5, 27, 37, 369–371, 370f, 457–476 acetyl-CoA as substrate of, 457, 457f, 458–459, 459f

acetyl-CoA sources in, 469–471

α-keto acid dehydrogenase complexes in, 464–466, 464f α-ketoglutarate to succinyl-CoA in, 460–461, 460f, 464, 464f

amino acids and, 469, 472, 472f, 769, 771, 771f, 776–781, 830, 831fATP generated in, 4f, 5, 27, 37, 375, 457

bicarbonate buffer system for, 53–54 cancer-causing mutations in, 520–521 capacities of various tissues, 38t coenzyme A in, 463–464, 463f coenzymes of, 461–466

dihydrolipoyl dehydrogenase in, 465–466 efficiency of, overall, 466–467 energetics of, 466–467, 466f, 467t energy yield of, 467t

FAD in, 457–458, 457f, 459, 461–462, 462f, 465–466 Gibbs free energy change in, 466–467, 466f glycolysis link to, 457, 469, 471

GTP generation in, 460f, 461

high-energy bonds in, 403, 459, 461, 463–464 impaired functioning in, 458

import of nuclear-encoded proteins for, 475, 475f intermediates of, 471–472

amino acid degradation to, 472, 472f, 771, 771f, 776–781 amino acid synthesis from, 471–472, 471f, 769, 776–781 anaplerotic reactions for, 458, 472, 473f, 780, 927

as biosynthetic precursors, 471–472, 471f in gluconeogenesis, 471, 471f, 570, 571–572

isocitrate formation and oxidation in, 459–460, 460f ketone bodies in, 375

in kidney, 829, 829f

lipoate in, 457, 461, 465, 465f overview of, 457f, 458–459 precursors of

accumulation of, 458 acetyl-CoA precursors, 469–471

pyruvate carboxylase in, 458, 472, 472f pyruvate oxidation in, 435, 445, 469–471 reactions of, 459–461, 460f

regulation of, 458, 467–471, 468f

allosteric regulation of isocitrate dehydrogenase, 468–469, 469f mitochondrial enzyme compartmentation and, 474–475

regulation by need for ATP, 458, 467, 468f

regulation of α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase, 468f, 469 regulation of citrate synthase, 468, 468f

regulation of intermediates, 469

reversible and irreversible reactions in, 467 succinate oxidation to oxaloacetate in, 460f, 461 thiamin pyrophosphate in, 457, 458, 461, 465 urea cycle and, 759, 759f

vitamins and minerals required in, 459 Triglycerides. See Triacylglycerols

Triiodothyronine (T3), 196f, 395, 401, 409, 481, 856–860 calorigenic effects of, 859–860

half-life of, 858

physiologic effects of, 858–859 on adipocytes, 859

on liver, 859 on muscle, 859

radioimmunoassay for, 865, 865f secretion of, 858, 859f

structure of, 856fsynthesis of, 856–857, 857f Trimetazidine (TMZ), 939

Trimethoprim and sulfamethoxazole (TMP/sulfa), 545

Triose phosphates, glucose 6-phosphate conversion to, 438, 439f Trioses, 66

Tripeptides, 25

Triple helix of collagen, 118, 118f Trisaccharides, 25

tRNA. See Transfer RNA Tropocollagen, 983 Tropoelastin, 983 Troponins

cardiac, 81, 101, 122, 160

in muscle contraction, 936, 937f trp operon, 297, 300, 300f

Trypsin, 25, 738, 739f, 740–741, 740f, 741f Trypsin inhibitor, 742

Trypsinogen, 740, 740f Tryptophan, 12, 83, 84f, 85t as corepressor, 297 deficiency of, 746, 782

degradation of, 770–771, 771f, 782, 783f serotonin synthesis from, 959, 963, 964f Tryptophan hydroxylase, 963, 964f TSC1/TSC2 complex, 730, 731f, 744f Tuberculosis, 268, 271t

HIV-related, 252, 253, 260, 268 multidrug treatment of, 260, 268 rifampin for, 260, 268

Tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC1 and TSC2), 730, 731f, 744f Tubulin

colchicine action on, 183 GTP binding by, 183

inhibition by acetaldehyde, 185 microtubules, 169, 170f, 182–183, 183f Tumor(s), 346

angiogenic potential of, 346 benign, 212, 346 HIV-related, 225, 362

malignant, 212, 214, 344, 345, 346 (See also Cancer) oncogenes associated with, 349t

secretory ACTH-secreting, 855

catecholamine-secreting, 853, 954, 961, 963, 964, 973, 975t diagnosis of, 864

growth hormone-secreting, 847, 849, 850, 851, 864 Tumor necrosis factor (TNFs), 194, 837

Tumor necrosis factor (TNF) receptors, death receptors, 344, 357, 358f Tumor-suppressor genes, 212, 344, 353–356

and cell adhesion, 356, 356f and cell cycle, 353–355

DNA repair enzymes as, 348–349 examples of, 353t

and receptors, 355

and signal transduction, 355 Tunica media, 687, 688f

Turnover of proteins. See Protein turnover28S rRNA, 224, 261–263, 263f 23S rRNA, 224

TψC loop, of tRNA, 263, 264f

Tylenol (acetaminophen), 645f, 916–917, 917f Type I collagen, 117, 979, 980–982, 981t Type I fibers, 449, 844, 932–934, 934t

Type IIa fibers, 934, 934t Type IIb fibers, 934, 934t, 942

Type II fibers, 449, 844, 932–934, 934t Type II glycogen storage disease, 530 Type IV collagen, 980–982, 982f Tyramine, 962, 963

Tyramine poisoning, 963, 975t Tyrosine, 12, 84f, 85–86, 85t

catecholamine synthesis from, 853, 959–961, 960f degradation of, 771, 771f, 778, 781, 781f, 782f disorders of, 782, 786t, 787t

phenylalanine conversion to, 769, 770f, 771, 778, 781, 959, 960f Tyrosine aminotransferase (TAT), 782, 786t

Tyrosine hydroxylase, 960f, 961–963 Tyrosine kinase, as oncogene, 350t

Tyrosine kinase-associated receptors, 190, 201–202 Tyrosine kinase inhibitors, 362, 853

Tyrosine kinase receptor(s), 190, 198–201, 198f, 199f Tyrosine kinase subunit, of insulin receptor, 377, 386 Tyrosinemia, 782, 787t

UU

biquinone, 666 Ubiquitin, 738, 745, 745f

UDP. See Uridine diphosphate Ultraviolet (UV) radiation

DNA damage from, 240, 241f, 246, 346, 347 reactive oxygen species from, 505 Uncharged amino acids

aliphatic, polar, 86 polar, 80, 84f, 85t

Uncoating of virus, 269, 270f

Uncompetitive inhibitors, 150, 154–155, 155f

Uncoupling, in electron-transport chain, 481, 493, 494–496 chemical uncouplers in, 494, 495f

proton leak in, 481, 494, 496 uncoupling proteins in, 494–496, 495f

Uncoupling proteins (UCPs), 494–496, 495f Underweight, 10

Undissociated acid, 47 Unique DNA, 265

Units of measure, 45, 46t. See also specific measures Unsaturated fatty acids, 69–70, 71f, 607, 609 oxidation of, 614–616, 615f

Unwinding, DNA, 221, 232, 232f

Upstream events, in signal transduction, 197 Upstream gene sequences, 254

Uptake, hepatic, 910 Uracil, 73, 215t, 223, 223f degradation pathway of, 817

modifications in tRNA, 264production of, 243 Urate, 817

Urea, 757

arginine cleavage for production of, 758f, 759 measurement of, 41

nitrogen conversion to, 34, 36, 37, 38, 751, 757–765 (See also Urea cycle) structure of, 36, 36f

synthesis of, 823

Urea cycle, 34, 36, 37, 38, 38t, 751, 757–765, 918 arginine cleavage in, 758f, 759

arginine production in, 751, 758–759, 758f, 761 capacities of various tissues, 38t

carbamoyl phosphate synthesis in, 758, 758f disorders of, 212, 759, 761–764, 766t, 817 arginine therapy for, 762

benzoic acid for, 762–763, 763f gene therapy for, 763–764 phenylbutyrate for, 762–763, 763f fasting state, 760–761, 761f feed-forward regulation of, 751 glutamate in, 755–756, 756f

nitrogen transport to liver for, 751, 756–757, 756f, 823 ornithine origin in, 759

reactions of, 757–759, 758f regulation of, 760, 760f steps in, 758f

TCA cycle and, 759, 759f Uremia, 979, 991–992 Uric acid, 170

allopurinol and, 140–142, 142f, 818, 818f as antioxidant, 518–519

blood measurement of, 170

elevated levels of, 74, 807, 817, 818 (See also Gout) ethanol and, 710

purine ring degradation to, 807 tautomers of, 74, 74f

xanthine conversion to, 817 Uricase, 170

Uridine diphosphate (UDP), 806, 816–817

Uridine diphosphate (UDP)-galactose, 371, 442, 443f, 544 formation of, 550f

glycolipids synthesis from, 558–559 la

ctose synthesis from, 553–554, 553f synthesis of, 553, 553f

Uridine diphosphate (UDP)-glucose, 550–553 formation of, 371, 401, 528, 528f functions/products of, 371, 372f

in glycogen synthesis, 371, 400f, 401, 525, 528–529, 528f, 529f glycolipids synthesis from, 558–559

high-energy bonds of, 401, 401f, 402 in interconversion of sugars, 544 la

ctose synthesis from, 544 metabolism of, 550f reactions of, 550–551

UDP-galactose from, 550f, 553, 553f UDP-glucuronate from, 550–553, 550f, 551f

Uridine diphosphate (UDP)-glucuronate, 371, 544, 550–553formation of, 550f, 551, 551f

glucuronate/glucuronides from, 551–553, 551f, 552f

Uridine diphosphate (UDP)-sugar precursors, 978, 986–987, 987f Uridine diphosphate (UDP)-xylose, 551f

Uridine monophosphate (UMP), 806, 813, 814f, 815f Uridine monophosphate (UMP) synthase, 813 Uridine phosphorylase, 815f, 816

Uridine triphosphate (UTP), 252, 402, 525, 528, 528f, 529f in pyrimidine synthesis, 813, 814f, 816

Urinalysis, 231

Urinary bladder, cancer of, 346

Urinary tract infections, 231, 233, 246, 248t Urine

creatinine in, 35, 40 hydrogen ions in, 55–56 metabolite measurements in, 41

pH of, 55–56 water loss via, 57 Urobilinogens, 879

Urokinase (uPA), 904 Uronic acid, 68, 69f, 978

UV radiation. See Ultraviolet (UV) radiation VVa

ccines. See also specific vaccines attenuated, 333

misperceptions about, 284

recombinant DNA technology for, 319, 333, 338 subunit, 338

Valine, 12, 83, 84f, 85t

conversion to glutamine, 830–832, 831f degradation of, 771, 779–781, 779f, 780–781 disorders of, 786t

functions of, 827–828

oxidation in skeletal muscle, 823, 825, 827, 830, 831f principles governing interorgan flux, 827–828

in sickle cell hemoglobin, 86, 87, 88 and TCA cycle, 472, 472f, 780

van der Waals interactions, 102, 103f, 105 Variable loop, of tRNA, 263, 264f

Variable number of tandem repeats (VNTRs), 331, 331f Variable (V) region, 116, 116f

Variant regions, 88 Varmus, Harold, 346

Vascular endothelium, thromboresistance of, 903 Vascular endothelium growth factor (VEGF), 992 Vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP), 848, 861t Vasodilation, nitric oxide in, 968, 968f Vaso-occlusive crisis, 81, 90, 101, 112, 121–122 Vectors, cloning, 319, 327, 328f

for constructing DNA libraries, 328–329 Vectors, gene therapy, 336–337, 336f Vegans, dietary guidelines for, 17

Velocity, of enzymes, 150, 151–154, 152f, 153f, 154f Ventricular fibrillation, 505

Ventricular tachycardia, 505

Very-long-chain acyl CoA dehydrogenase (VCAD), 611t, 626Very-long-chain fatty acids, 607

activation of, 611t oxidation of, 611t, 618–620

Very-low-density lipoprotein (VLDL), 29, 579, 591–593, 592t, 647–649, 680 abetalipoproteinemia and, 602–603, 604t, 648, 663t

alcoholism and, 649

apolipoprotein associated with, 599 characteristics of, 679t cholesterol in, 666, 674, 680 chylomicron vs., 591, 648 composition of, 648, 648f

elevated levels of, 649

fate of, 592, 648, 649, 650f, 680, 680f, 723–724 fed state, 24, 27, 29, 723–724

HDL interaction with, 593, 683, 683f hepatic secretion of, 913

LDL receptor for, 685

microsomal triglyceride transfer protein and, 602–603, 648 structure of, 599f

synthesis of, 591, 647–648, 648f, 650f, 680

triacylglycerols in, 568, 579, 591–592, 592f, 632, 632f, 647–649, 720, 723–724 Vesicle monoamine transporter 2 (VMAT2), 961, 961f

Vesicular ATPases, 179, 399, 961, 961f Vesicular transport, 178

vi (initial velocity of reaction), 150

Vibrio cholerae, 170, 171, 430 Vildagliptin, 863 Vincristine, 295

Vinyl chloride detoxification, 916, 916f Vioxx (COX-2 inhibitor), 645

Viral hepatitis, 753, 757, 764, 766t Virilization, 668, 690, 694, 696–697 Virus(es), 215

and cancer, 344, 362

infecting bacteria, 215 (See also Bacteriophages) uncoating of, 269, 270f

Vitamin(s), 3

blood–brain barrier and, 958 as coenzymes, 134

deficiencies of, 13, 14, 14t–15t

in alcoholism, 129, 143, 147t, 458, 474, 791, 802 in anorexia nervosa, 458, 461, 463, 474, 476t and enzymes, 134

dietary guidelines on, 18

dietary requirements for, 13, 14t–15t excess intake of, 13

fat-soluble, 13, 15t, 591

Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL), 13, 14t–15t in tricarboxylic acid cycle, 459 water-soluble, 13, 14t

Vitamin A, 591 deficiency of, 15t

dietary requirement (RDA), 15t Vitamin B1. See Thiamin Vitamin B6

deficiency of, 14t, 755, 766t, 875, 876dietary requirement (RDA), 14t pyridoxal phosphate synthesis from, 136

structure of, 73

Vitamin B12, 790, 796–798

absorption, transport, and storage of, 797–798, 797f

deficiency of, 14, 14t, 790–791, 797, 799, 802, 869, 883, 953, 966 dietary requirement (RDA), 14t

dietary sources of, 15t, 17, 18, 797 functions of, 790, 798

methionine from, 790, 798, 798f methyl-trap hypothesis and, 790–791, 799 in neurotransmitter synthesis, 953, 966 as one-carbon-group recipient, 795t

relationship with tetrahydrofolate and SAM, 790–791, 798f, 799–801 Schilling test for, 791

structure and forms of, 796–797, 796f succinyl-CoA from, 790, 798, 798f Vitamin C

as antioxidant, 505, 518, 518f in carnitine synthesis, 612 as coenzyme, 138

in collagen synthesis, 118, 118f, 979 deficiency of, 14t, 118, 979

dietary requirement (RDA), 14t in iron absorption, 876 Vitamin D, 591

active form of (cholecalciferol, D3), 196, 196f, 666, 694–695, 695f deficiency of, 15t, 695

dietary requirement (RDA), 15t synthesis of, 674, 694–695, 695f Vitamin E, 591

as antioxidant, 505, 514, 517, 517f as coenzyme, 138

deficiency of, 14, 15t dietary requirement (RDA), 15t

dietary sources of, 517 Vitamin K, 591, 900–901, 901f deficiency of, 15t

dietary requirement (RDA), 15t

Vitamin K antagonists, 900, 901, 905–906 VLDL. See Very-low-density lipoprotein VMAT2 protein, 961, 961f

V

max (maximal velocity), of enzyme, 150, 152–154, 152f, 153f, 154f Voltage-dependent anion channels (VDACs), 481, 497–498, 497f, 498f, 499 Voltage-gated channels, 175

in action potential, 192–193, 192f von Gierke disease, 531t, 535

von Willebrand factor (vWF), 893, 896–897

von Willebrand factor (vWF) deficiency, 896, 907t WWa

ist circumference, 30–31 Waist-to-hip ratio, 31 Warfarin, 900, 901, 905

Waste disposal pathways, 1, 2f Water, 48–50

body distribution of, 47, 48, 49fbody percentage of, 47, 48 dietary requirement for, 3, 16

dissociation of, 47, 50–51, 50f distribution between blood and tissues, 894 functions of, 47, 48

homeostasis, 57, 57f lo

ss of (dehydration), 57 osmolality and movement of, 50 pH of, 47, 50–51

as solvent, 47, 48, 49 thermal regulation by, 49 Water molecule

dipolar nature of, 47, 48, 65 hydrogen bonds in, 48–49, 49f Water-soluble vitamins, 13, 14t Watson, James, 216–220

Weak acids, 47, 51–52, 51t Weight, body, 30

and blood glucose levels, 587t gain and loss, 10–11

healthy, 10

Weight-loss drugs, 954, 973 Weight table, 12

Western blots, 324, 325f Wet beriberi, 458, 474

White adipose tissue, 494–495, 648 White blood cells. See Leukocyte(s) White muscle fibers, 449, 934 Wilkins, Maurice, 216

Wobble hypothesis, 276 XXa

nthelasma, 695

Xanthine, degradation pathway of, 817, 818, 818f Xanthine oxidase, 504, 509, 811, 817, 818, 818f Xanthosine monophosphate (XMP), 809, 811 Xanthurenic acid, 755

X chromosome, 221, 222f Xenobiotics, 1, 3, 914–917 biotransformation of, 914, 915t

conversion to glucuronides, 544, 551, 551f cytochrome P450 and, 914–917

definition of, 1, 3, 914 detoxification, 3, 844, 914–917