новая папка / 123
.pdfrate of, 607–608
Fatty acid synthase complex, 631, 634, 636–637, 637f, 638f, 639f, 721–723, 722f, 729t
Fatty acid synthesis, 591, 631, 631f, 634–638 acetyl-CoA carboxylase in, 631, 636, 636f, 721–723
cytosolic acetyl-CoA conversion to malonyl-CoA in, 636, 636f, 721–723 elongation in, 637, 640ffatty acid synthase complex in, 631, 634, 636–637, 637f, 638f, 639f, 721–723, 722f
glucose as carbon source in, 631, 631f, 634–635
glucose conversion to cytosolic acetyl-CoA in, 635, 635f initial step of, 637
NADPH/pentose phosphate pathway, 543, 543f, 548–550 pyruvate generation for, 435, 437, 446 rate-limiting enzyme of, 636, 636f
regulation of, 631
TCA cycle intermediates and, 471, 471f Fatty acylation, 92, 284
Fatty acylcarnitine, 612, 612f
Fatty acyl coenzyme A (fatty acyl-CoA), 610–612 fates of, 611–612, 611f
formation of, 607, 608f, 610–612, 610f
in glycerophospholipid synthesis, 632, 652 in muscle, 938, 938f
in peroxisomal oxidation, 619–620, 619f, 923 release in β-oxidation, 613–614, 613f
in triacylglycerol synthesis, 632 Fatty liver, 185, 603, 649, 702, 708 Fatty streak, 687, 688
Fed state, 3f, 24–33
amino acids in, 24, 24f, 29, 752f carbohydrates in, 24, 24f, 720–724 digestion and absorption in, 24, 25–26, 26f
fats (lipids) in, 24, 24f, 29, 592, 592f, 720–724 glucagon in, 24, 26–27, 380, 380f, 384, 385f
glucose in, 24, 24f, 27–28, 437, 566, 568f, 579–581, 584, 584f, 720–723 glycogen metabolism in, 24, 24f, 532, 532t, 566, 568f
hormones in, 26–27
insulin in, 24, 26–28, 380, 380f, 385f, 566, 720–724 proteins in, 24, 24f
triacylglycerols in, 24, 24f, 592, 592f, 720–724 Feedback amplification, 901–902
Feedback regulation, 150, 151, 162f, 163. See also specific processes coagulation, 901–903
TCA cycle, 458
Feed-forward regulation, 150, 151, 163 Fenestrations, 957
Fenfluramine, 965, 973
Fenton reaction, 504, 506–507, 507f, 515 Ferric ion, 295
Ferritin, 312, 312f, 314, 876–877, 877f Ferrochelatase, 875, 875f
Ferroxidase, 876
Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS), 17–18 Fetal aldolase, 441
Fetal hemoglobin (HbF), 80, 90
hereditary persistence of, 870, 885–889, 890t Fetus
bradycardia in, 526 ketone body usage in, 624
neural tube defects in, 791, 800–803 FH4. See Tetrahydrofolate
Fiber, dietary, 17, 415, 418, 424–425 benefits of, 424–425
colonic metabolism of, 422guidelines on, 424 indigestible, 422, 422f
soluble vs. insoluble, 424 types of, 424, 424t Fibrates, 696t, 698, 923
Fibril-associated collagen, 980, 982
Fibril-associated collagens with interrupted triple helices (FACITS), 980 Fibril-forming collagen, 980–982
Fibrillin-1, 983
Fibrillin-2, 983
Fibrin, 843, 893, 898–900 Fibrin clot, 893, 895
Fibrin cross-linking, 900, 900f Fibrinogen, 893, 896, 897, 898f, 900 Fibrinolysis, 893, 895, 903–904 Fibroblast(s), 844, 979
Fibroblast growth factors, as oncogenes, 350t Fibronectin, 844, 978, 989–990
integrins and, 989
proteoglycan interactions with, 987, 988f Fibrosis
definition of, 713
hepatic, 713–714, 713t, 714f, 715t, 926–928 Fibrous cap, in atherosclerosis, 688–689
Fibrous proteins, 101, 102. See also specific types bonding in, 109
collagen family of, 117–118, 979–983 extracellular matrix, 978, 979–984 50S ribosomal subunit, 224, 225
Fight-or-flight hormone, 107, 194. See also Epinephrine Filaments
actin, 169, 183–184, 184f intermediate, 169, 183, 184, 184f thin, 183
First law of thermodynamics, 397t, 398, 403, 408–409 Fish oils, 638, 645
5′-Flanking region, 254, 255f
5S rRNA, 224, 262–263, 263f
5.8S rRNA, 224, 261–263, 263f
5′-to-3′ direction, in transcription, 251, 252 Flap endonuclease 1 (FEN1), 238, 238t
Flavin adenine dinucleotide. See FAD Flavin mononucleotide (FMN), 459, 462f Flavonoids, as antioxidants, 505, 514, 518
Flavoproteins, in electron-transport chain, 484, 485f Fluid balance, 57, 57f
Fluid compartments, 48, 49f distribution of ions in, 49, 50t osmolality in, 50
pH and buffering in, 53–56 Fluid mosaic, 171
Fluorescence-activated cell sorting, 880 Fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET), 990 Fluorescent polarization immunoassay (FPIA), 641 Fluoride, dietary, 18
Fluorodeoxyuridylate (FdUMP), 796
5-Fluorouracil, 214, 224, 226, 227t, 345, 791, 796, 819Fluoxetine (Prozac), 954, 973 Foam cells, 687
Folate
in choline synthesis, 966 deficiency of, 14t, 790–792, 883 in alcoholism, 791, 802, 803t and DNA synthesis, 801
FIGLU accumulation in, 794 functional, 790–791
megaloblastic anemia in, 14t, 790–791, 792, 796, 803t, 883 neural tube defects in, 791, 800–803, 803t
dietary requirement (RDA), 14t, 792 dietary sources of, 15t, 17, 792 hereditary malabsorption of, 793 metabolism of, 792
methyl-trap hypothesis and, 790–791, 799 structure and forms of, 791, 792f synthesis of, 792
tetrahydrofolate from, 790, 792 Folate therapy, 796
Folding, protein, 83, 100–101, 116–121, 274 cis-trans isomerase in, 117
heat-shock proteins in, 117, 117f kinetic barriers in, 117 misfolding in, 119–121
primary structure and, 117
protein disulfide isomerase in, 117 Folds, 100, 106–107
actin, 100, 106–107 globin, 110, 110f
in globular proteins, 106–107 immunoglobulin, 114, 115f, 116f nucleotide binding, 105f, 106, 107 Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), 694
Follicular lymphoma, 295, 313, 315t, 360, 482 Fondaparinux, 905
Forensics, 320, 333, 334, 339
Formaldehyde, as one-carbon-group source, 794, 795t Formate, one-carbon groups from, 794, 795t Formiminoglutamate (FIGLU), 778, 794 Formyl-methionyl-tRNA, 281, 281f
45S rRNA precursor, 262–263, 263f
40S ribosomal subunit, 224, 263, 263f fos transcription factor, 350–351, 351f Fractional occupancy of enzyme, 165 Fragile X syndrome, 304, 315t Frameshift mutations, 278, 278f
in β-thalassemia, 288t Franklin, Rosalind, 216
Free amino acids, 12, 29, 769, 823–828
interorgan flux in postabsorptive state, 825–828, 826f maintenance of pool in blood, 824–828, 825f
membrane attack/lipid peroxidation by, 509–510, 509f, 510f source of, 823, 824, 825f
Free bases, salvage of, 806, 807, 811, 812f, 813–816, 815f Free cholesterol, 669, 675, 678
Free energy. See Gibbs free energy changeFree fatty acids, 594, 597, 597f, 946–947, 946f
Free radicals, 74–75, 504–521
cellular defenses against, 505, 514–519 antioxidant scavenging enzymes in, 515–516 compartmentalization in, 514, 515f
glutathione defense system in, 505, 515–516, 516f, 543, 548–549, 549f nonenzymatic antioxidants in, 516–519
damage from, 504, 504t, 509–511, 510f
disease states associated with, 504, 504t, 509, 522t DNA, 511
ethanol and, 702, 710–712, 711f
membrane attack/lipid peroxidation, 509–510, 509f, 510f protein and peptide, 511
definition of, 506
generation of, 504, 504f, 505–509, 511–513, 920–921 in neurodegenerative diseases, 504, 953
in Parkinson disease, 504, 508, 509, 519, 519f in phagocytosis and inflammation, 513–514, 513f reactions with cellular components, 509–511, 509f
Free-radical scavengers, 505, 514, 516–519 Free ribosomes, 170f
Friedewald formula, 667 Fructokinase, 440–441, 440f Fructokinase deficiency, 435
Fructose, 25, 66f, 418, 435, 435f, 440–442 absorption of, 415, 426–427
conversion to glycolysis intermediates, 435, 435f, 436, 440–441, 440f digestion of, 415
hereditary intolerance of, 435, 436, 442, 451–452, 454t high-fructose corn syrup, 418, 440
intravenous, 452
malabsorption of, 418, 423, 430, 431t metabolism of, 369, 370f, 435, 440–441, 440f structure of, 416f
synthesis in polyol pathway, 435, 435f, 441, 441f transport of, 415
Fructose 1,6-bisphosphatase, 574–575, 577, 577t, 724, 725f, 729t Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate
conversion to fructose 6-phosphate, 574–575, 577 in fasting state, 581
in gluconeogenesis, 569, 570f, 574–575 in glycolysis, 437, 437f, 438, 439f, 441 PEP conversion to, 574, 574f
Fructose 1-phosphate, 435, 440, 923
Fructose 2,6-bisphosphatase, 729t
Fructose 2,6-bisphosphate, 449, 449f, 724, 725f, 726 Fructose 6-phosphate, 438, 439f, 449, 449f
fructose 1,6-bisphosphate conversion to, 574–575, 577 in gluconeogenesis, 569, 570f, 574–575 interconversion of, 543f, 544
ribose 5-phosphate generation from, 548, 548f ribulose 5-phosphate conversion to, 546–547, 547f Fructosuria, essential, 435, 441, 442
Fucose (L-fucose), 544, 556, 558f, 559 Fucosidosis, 559t
Fuel. See also specific substances dietary, 4–7fat storage as, 7, 7t, 24
fatty acids as, 374–375, 566, 591, 607, 609–612, 922–925 macronutrients as, 1, 4
universal, glucose as, 369, 375, 434 Fuel depots, 24
Fuel homeostasis, 623–624, 623f
Fuel metabolism, 3. See also specific substances and processes capacities of various tissues, 38t
fasting state, 34–44 fed state, 24–33
gastrointestinal-derived hormones affecting, 860–863, 861t hormones regulating, 845–866, 846t
Fuel oxidation. See Oxidation, fuel Fuel requirements, 3
Fuel storage, 7–8. See also specific fuels fat, 7, 7t, 24
fed state, 24, 24f glycogen, 7–8, 7t protein, 7t, 8
supplies after overnight fast, 7t Fuel storage pathways, 1, 2f Fumarate, 751, 758f, 759
amino acid degradation to, 771, 771f, 776, 778 in AMP synthesis, 808–809, 809f
aspartate conversion to, 811, 813f succinate oxidation to, 460f, 461
Fumarylacetoacetate hydrolase, 782, 782f, 786t, 787t Functional assay, for clotting factors, 894
Functional deficiency, 134 Functional groups, 62, 63–65 amino acid, 80, 81f, 134, 134t
in catalysis (enzymes), 128, 130, 134–139 charge of, 64, 65f
nomenclature for, 63, 65 oxidized and reduced, 64, 64f partial charges of, 65, 65f polar, 65, 65f, 66f
transfer of, 144, 145f Futile cycling, 527–528 GG0
phase of cell cycle, 236
G1 phase of cell cycle, 235–236, 236, 236f
G2 phase of cell cycle, 236, 236f GABA. See γ-Aminobutyrate G-actin, 105–106, 106f, 183, 184f GADD45 enzyme, 354, 355f
Gain-of-function mutation, 344, 347–349, 348f, 360 Galactitol, 435
Galactocerebrosides, 656, 971–972 Galactosamine, 68
Galactose, 5, 25 absorption of, 415, 426–427
conversion to intermediates of glycolysis, 435, 436, 442, 443f digestion of, 415
glucose conversion to, 553, 554f
interconversion with glucose, 371metabolism of, 369, 370f, 435, 442, 443f structure of, 416f
transport of, 415
Galactose 1-phosphate (galactose 1-P), 435, 553, 554 Galactosemia, 435, 436, 442, 452, 454t Galactosyltransferase, 554
Galactosyl uridylyltransferase, 435 Galanin, 861t
Gallbladder inflammation of, 595
lipid metabolism in, 594, 596 Gallstones, 81, 595, 598, 602, 883 γ-Aminobutyrate (GABA), 953, 958, 967 α-ketoglutarate conversion to, 472, 760 structure of, 73, 73f
synthesis of, 834, 967, 967f γ-Aminobutyrate (GABA) shunt, 967, 967f γ-Carboxyglutamate, 893
γ-Globin gene, 885–889, 886f, 888f γ-Globulins, 114, 116f
γ-Glutamyl cycle, 746–747, 747f
Gangliosides, 72, 72f, 287, 558–559, 558f, 633, 656
Gangliosidoses, 287, 559, 559t, 561, 563t. See also Tay–Sachs disease Gangrene, gas, 172, 187t
Gap phases of cell cycle, 235–236, 236f Gas gangrene, 172, 187t
Gastric acid, 56. See also Hydrochloric acid
Gastric inhibitory polypeptide/glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP), 384, 860–863, 861t, 862f, 862t
Gastric lipase, 594, 595, 596f Gastrin, 860
Gastrin-releasing peptide (GRP), 861t Gastrointestinal-derived hormones, 860–863, 861t Gastrointestinal water loss, 57
Gated channels
in action potential, 192–193, 192f ligand-gated, 175–176, 176f phosphorylation-gated, 175
in plasma membrane, 169, 174, 175–176, 175f pressure-gated, 175
voltage-gated, 175, 192–193, 192f Gaucher disease, 559t, 561
Gel, proteoglycan, 986 Gelatin zymography assay, 990
Gel electrophoresis, 319, 323, 324f GenBank, 96
Gender (sex)
and basic metabolic rate, 8 and ethanol metabolism, 707 and fat storage, 30
and iron deficiency, 877 Gene(s), 80, 221–223 alleles of, 88–89, 222–223
copies of, strategies for obtaining, 321–322 eukaryotic vs. prokaryotic, 267t
isolation of, 319
promoter region of, 254–257, 255f
recognition by RNA polymerase, 254–255regions of, 251f sequences of, 254, 255f
structural, 296
transcribed region of, 254, 255f Gene amplification, 301, 303, 319 Gene chip assays, 319, 332–333, 362 Gene editing, CRISPR/Cas for, 340 Gene expression
in cancer, 302 definition of, 294 gene therapy and, 319 silencing of, 319, 335
in transcription, 211, 294–309 in translation, 211, 294
Gene expression regulation, 211, 294–315 adaptation and differentiation in, 295 in eukaryotes, 294, 301–313
availability of genes for transcription in, 301–303 chromatin remodeling in, 294, 301–302
DNA level, 294, 301–303
DNA methylation in, 294, 301, 302 gene amplification in, 301, 303 gene deletions in, 301, 303
gene rearrangements in, 301, 302–303, 303f
gene regulatory sequences in, 294, 303–304, 304f gene-specific regulatory proteins in, 304–305 histone acetylation in, 294, 302, 302f microRNAs in, 312–313, 312f
mRNA transport and stability in, 313 at multiple levels, 301
multiple regulators of promoters in, 308–309, 309f posttranscriptional processing of RNA in, 294, 310–313 RNA editing in, 311, 311f
transcription level, 294, 303–309 translation in, 311–313
in prokaryotes, 294, 296–300
attenuation of transcription in, 294, 300, 300f corepressors in, 297, 298f
inducers in, 297, 297f
operons in, 294, 296–300, 296f–298f repressors in, 294, 296–297, 297f
stimulation of RNA polymerase in, 298–299, 299f General acid–base catalysis, 133, 135 Generalized gangliosidosis, 559t
General (basal) transcription factors, 257, 257f, 303
Gene rearrangements, 211, 230, 243–245. See also specific processes
and availability of genes for transcription, 301 crossing over in, 243
gene expression regulation in, 302–303, 303f general or homologous, 244, 244f translocation in, 243, 244, 244f, 303 transposons in, 243, 245, 245f
Gene regulatory sequences, 294, 303–304, 304f Gene silencing, 319, 335
Gene-specific activation of transcription, 197 Gene-specific regulatory proteins, 304–305
Gene-specific transcription factors, 190, 195–196, 257, 257f, 294, 303–304, 304fGene therapy, 212, 319, 336–337
adenoviral vectors for, 337 CRISPR/Cas technology in, 340 for cystic fibrosis, 337
retroviral vectors for, 336–337, 336f for sickle cell anemia, 869
for thalassemia, 340, 869
for urea-cycle disorders, 763–764 Genetic code, 80, 108, 275–277 codon table of, 276, 276t degenerate but unambiguous, 276–277 nonoverlapping, 277
transcription of (See Transcription) translation of (See Translation) Genetic counseling, 335
Genetic engineering, 211. See also Recombinant DNA technology germ cell, ethics of, 340
plasmids in, 215
transgenic animals in, 335, 337 Genetic exchange, 243 transposons in, 243, 245, 245f Genetic locus, 222
Genetic testing, 211
Gene transcription. See Transcription Genome, 211, 221–223
DNA sequencing of, 323–327 E. coli, 223, 265 eukaryotic, 221–223
eukaryotic vs. prokaryotic, 267t human, 221–223, 321, 339–340 prokaryotic, 223
Genomic imprinting, 302 Genomic library, 327, 328, 331
Geranyl pyrophosphate, 672, 672f
Germ cells, genetic manipulation in, ethics of, 340 Gerstmann-Straüssler-Scheinker disease, 121 Ghrelin, 860, 861t
Gibbs free energy change (ΔG), 374, 394–402 additive values of, 400–401
definitions, laws, constants, and formulas, 397t vs. ΔG0,′ 401–402
exothermic vs. endothermic reactions, 397–398 general expression for, 398, 398t
in oxidative–reduction reactions, 405–406
in phosphoryl transfer reactions, 400–401, 400t substrate/product concentrations and, 401–402 in tricarboxylic acid cycle, 466–467, 466f Gi-complex, 387
Glargine, 81
Gleevec (imatinib), 362 Glial cells, 953–954, 954–956
Glicentin-related peptide, 848 Glipizide, 384
Globin(s), 869
disorders of, 884–886 (See also Thalassemia)
gene loci of, 885–889, 886f, 888fheme stimulation of, 877 Globin fold, 110, 110f
Globosides, 633, 656
Globular proteins, 100, 102, 105 bonding in, 108–109
folds in, 106–107 solubility of, 107 subunits of, 108–109
Glomerular basement membrane (GBM), 991–992, 992f Glomerular filtration rate (GFR), 941, 948, 992 Glomerulonephritis, poststreptococcal, 933, 941, 948 Glossitis, 474
Glucagon, 376–390, 719, 843, 845–848, 846t, 861t action on fatty acids, 376
action on glucose, 369, 372, 373f, 376–377, 377f, 579–581, 580f, 845 in amino acid metabolism, 825
basal (postabsorptive) state, 35, 36f
cAMP activation by, 164, 377, 377f, 386–387
counterregulation by, 376, 377f, 381f, 381t, 843, 845, 846t, 847 in diabetes mellitus, 385
fasting state, 34, 35–37, 385, 566, 825–827 in fatty acid metabolism, 649, 650f
in fatty acid synthesis, 635, 636
fed state, 24, 26–27, 380, 380f, 384, 385f fuel mobilization by, 376, 378
functions of, 380, 381t, 845
in glycogen metabolism, 526, 531, 533–535, 534f, 845, 848 insulin antagonism of, 389
insulin ratio with, 526, 531, 719, 723, 724 mechanisms of action, 385–388
in metabolic homeostasis, 378–380, 378f, 380f phosphorylation cascade activated by, 533–534, 534f physiologic effects of, 847–848
receptor for, 377 regulators of, 384, 384t secretion of, 384–385
signal transduction by, 386–387 sites of action, 380, 380f
synthesis of, 376, 381–382, 384–385, 847–848
Glucagonlike peptide 1 (GLP-1), 384, 660, 848, 860–863, 861t, 862f, 862t Glucagonlike peptide 1 (GLP-1) receptor agonists, 863, 863t Glucagonlike peptide 2 (GLP-2), 848, 861t
Glucoamylase, 415, 419–421, 420f, 420t Glucocorticoid(s), 846t, 854–856 counterregulation by, 843, 846t effects of, 855–856, 855f
fasting state, 826–827
and hyperglycemia, 568, 571, 585, 587t
inhaled vs. systemic, for asthma, 633–634, 658, 663t secretion of, 854–855, 854f
synthesis of, 689–693, 690t in trauma and sepsis, 837
Glucocorticoid receptor, 305f, 306
Glucogenic amino acids, 34, 566, 570, 575, 770, 771f Glucokinase, 144, 163, 382, 438, 720, 725f
in anorexia nervosa, 153, 154
glucose binding by, 131–132, 131f, 132fkinetic patterns of, 154 regulation of, 577t, 720, 720f, 729t
specificity of, 130f
substrate concentration for, 153, 154f Glucokinase regulatory protein (GKRP), 449, 922
Gluconeogenesis, 34–38, 372, 372f, 376, 566, 569–578 amino acids in, 34, 566, 570, 575, 770, 771f, 828 capacities of various tissues, 38t, 39
carbon sources for intermediates of, 570–572 definition of, 569
enzymes catalyzing, 570 ethanol and, 573, 702
in fasting, 566, 568f, 581–582, 724–726, 725f in fasting, prolonged, 38, 39, 568f
fatty acids in, 566, 571–572 in fed state, 566, 568f
fructose 1,6-bisphosphate conversion to fructose 6-phosphate in, 574–575, 577 glucose 6-phosphate conversion to glucose in, 437, 575, 577–578
glycerol in, 566, 570, 575 glycogenolysis activation with, 527 key reactions of, 569f
la
ctate in, 566, 570–571, 571f, 575 metformin action on, 697–698, 698f as misnomer, 586
pathway of, 572–575
PEP conversion to fructose 1,6-bisphosphate in, 574, 574f precursors for, 566, 570–572, 571f
propionate for, 571–572
pyruvate conversion to oxaloacetate in, 572–573, 572f, 573f pyruvate conversion to PEP in, 572–573, 572f, 575–577 pyruvate in, 570–577, 571f
recycling in, 586, 586f
regulation of, 575–578, 581–582, 581f, 724–726, 725f energy requirement in, 578
enzyme activity/amount in, 575–578, 576f, 577t substrate availability in, 575
renal, 569
as reversal of glycolysis, 566, 567f, 569–570, 572 sequence of, 566, 567f, 569–570
TCA cycle intermediates for, 471, 471f, 570, 571–572 Gluconic acid, 68, 69f, 551, 552
Glucosamine, 68, 68f, 554 Glucosamine 6-phosphate, 554, 556f Glucose, 5, 369–375
blood (plasma), 578–584
control, in diabetes mellitus, 585 ethanol and, 568, 584–585, 587t, 710 in exercise, 584
exercise and, 584, 945, 946f
in fasting, prolonged (starvation), 568f, 578, 579t, 583, 583f, 584, 584f
in fasting state, 34, 35–40, 39f, 56, 437, 526, 566, 568f, 570, 578, 579t, 581–582, 584, 584f
in fed state, 24, 24f, 27–28, 437, 566, 568f, 579–581, 584, 584f hepatic regulation of, 35–36, 724, 917–918
high, 27, 30, 31t (See also Diabetes mellitus; Hyperglycemia) in liver disease, 927
lo
w, 372, 378, 382 (See also Hypoglycemia)
maintenance of, 34, 566, 578, 724metabolic syndrome and, 660–662 monitor for, 75
postprandial (after meal), 35, 56, 566, 568f, 578–584, 578f return to fasting levels, 581
sources of, summary of, 584, 584f in cAMP regulation, 298–299, 299f
concentration as substrate, 153–154, 154f conversion of
to amino acids, 371, 371f, 375, 769, 770–771, 772–776 to carbon dioxide, 27, 369, 370f
to cytosolic acetyl-CoA, 635, 635f to galactose, 553, 554f
to glucose 6-P, 369, 382, 407, 407f, 434, 437–438, 437f, 525 to lactate, 369, 370f, 434, 435f
to triacylglycerols, 27, 371, 371f cortisol and, 372
CSF concentration of, 957
enzyme binding of, 131–132, 131f, 132f epinephrine and, 372
fatty acid synthesis from, 631, 631f, 634–635 fructose synthesis from, 435, 435f, 441, 441f
glucagon action on, 369, 372, 373f, 376–377, 377f, 579–581, 580f, 845 (See also Glucagon)
glucose 6-phosphate conversion to, 437, 575, 577–578 glycogen metabolism regulated by, 535
glycogen synthesis from, 27, 371, 372f, 525–529, 528f, 529f (See also Glycogen synthesis)
insulin action on, 27–28, 369, 372, 373f, 376–380, 377f, 579–581, 580f (See also Insulin)
in lac operon transcription, 298–299, 299f la
ctate cycling (Cori cycle), 445, 445f, 586, 586f measurement of, 46, 56, 377
in metabolic homeostasis, 378–379 mutarotation of, 68f
oxidation of, 4–5, 4f, 24, 24f, 27–28, 34 plant production of, 586
as precursor for neurotransmitters, 27–28, 38 as precursor for synthesis, 369
recycling of, 586, 586f
release in glycogenolysis, 34, 35, 36, 37, 372, 372f, 376 storage form of, 525 (See also Glycogen)
structure of, 5f, 66, 416f
synthesis of, 34–38, 372, 372f, 376, 566, 569–578 (See also Gluconeogenesis) transport of (See Glucose transporters)
as universal fuel, 369, 375, 434 Glucose, dietary, 418, 578–584 absorption of, 415, 425–428, 578 caloric value of, 406, 407 digestion of, 25, 415, 578
fate of
in liver, 579
in peripheral tissues, 579 glycemic index of, 425–426, 425t
Glucose 1-phosphate, 442, 443f, 525, 527, 528, 530, 537
Glucose 6-phosphatase, 525, 527, 528f, 537, 725f, 729t deficiency of, 531t, 535
in gluconeogenesis, 575, 577–578 lo
cation and function of, 577f in phosphorylase assay, 530
regulation of, 577–578, 577tGlucose 6-phosphate, 369–371, 525–526 as branch point in carbohydrate metabolism, 437
buffer action of, 55 conversions of
to fructose 6-phosphate, 543f, 544 to glucose, 437, 575, 577–578
to glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate, 543f, 544 to triose phosphates, 438, 439f
to UDP-glucose, 371, 372f deficiency of, 874
in fasting state, 581–582 feedback regulation of, 152, 153 formation of, 369, 382, 434 genetic mutations in, 874
in gluconeogenesis, 437, 569, 570f, 725f
glucose 1-phosphate conversion to and from, 525, 527, 528, 537 glucose conversion to, 369, 382, 407, 407f, 434, 437–438, 437f, 525 in glycogen metabolism, 437, 525, 527, 528, 528f, 537