новая папка / 123
.pdfHeterocyclic rings, 62, 73 Heterogenous nuclear RNA (hnRNA), 224 Heteroplasmy, 491
Heterotrimeric G-proteins, 107, 190, 203–204, 204f, 204t Heterozygous state, 88, 89, 90, 223
Hexokinase, 106, 163, 369, 428, 438. See also Glucokinase feedback regulation of, 152
glucose binding by, 143f
glucose concentration for, 153–154, 154f
glycolysis catalyzed by, 434, 434f, 437f, 438, 448–449, 448f inhibition of, 434, 448–449
product inhibition of, 155regulation of, 448–449, 448f in transport across mitochondria, 497, 497f Hexosamine, 978
Hexosaminidase(s), 287
Hexosaminidase A, in Tay–Sachs disease, 275, 287, 561–562, 562f Hexose(s), 66
Hexose monophosphate shunt. See Pentose phosphate pathway Hierarchical phosphorylation, 534
High-density lipoprotein (HDL), 592t, 593–594, 600–601, 600f, 666–667, 681–684 characteristics of, 679t
familial deficiency of, 681 fate of, 682–683, 683f
as “good cholesterol,” 688
interactions with other particles, 593, 600, 600f, 648, 683–684, 683f in liver disease, 925
maturation of, 681 metabolic syndrome and, 660 nascent, 681, 683f protective role of, 667, 668 raising level of, 659, 689
reverse cholesterol transport by, 681–682, 682f synthesis of, 681
High-energy bonds, 396, 402–403, 403f. See also specific processes in glycolysis, 438–440, 452–453
in oxidative phosphorylation, 480
in tricarboxylic acid cycle, 403, 459, 461, 463–464 High-fructose corn syrup, 418, 440
Highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART), 246 Highly repetitive DNA, 266, 266f
Highly variable regions, 331 High-molecular-weight (HMW) heparin, 905
High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), 458, 669, 772 High-protein meal, amino acid metabolism after, 835–836, 835f HindIII restriction enzyme, 321t
Hippurate, 924
Hippuric acid, 762, 763f Hirsutism, 668, 694, 695 Hirudin, 905–906
Histamine, 871, 958, 964–965 in allergic response, 965 inactivation of, 965, 965f storage and release of, 964–965 synthesis of, 964, 965f
Histamine methyltransferase, 965, 965f Histidine, 12, 84f, 85t, 86–87 deamination of, 755
degradation of, 771, 771f, 778 histamine synthesis from, 964, 965f
as one-carbon-group source, 794, 794f, 795t proximal, 111, 111f
titration curve of, 86–87, 87f Histidine load, 794
Histone(s), 181, 221, 222, 222f, 236, 267 Histone acetylation, 294, 302, 302f, 626
Histone acetyltransferases (HATs), 302, 302f, 626 Histone deacetylases (HDACs), 302, 302f HIV/AIDs, 214, 225, 227tdidanosine for, 234, 326 multidrug regimen for, 231, 234, 246, 248t, 268 myopathic processes in, 482, 494, 499, 500t opportunistic infections in, 225
tuberculosis in, 252, 253, 260, 268 tumors/cancer in, 225, 362
HIV virus, 226, 245, 269, 270f HIV-1, 269
HIV-2, 269 testing for, 320
HMG-CoA, 621, 622f, 666, 782 HMG-CoA reductase, 659, 666, 673–674 AMPK and, 730
covalent modification of, 673–674, 674f
proteolytic degradation of, 673, 674f, 739–741, 739f, 740f, 741f transcriptional regulation of, 673, 674f
HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors (statins), 659, 667–668, 668t, 670, 673, 688, 695, 696, 696t, 915
HMG-CoA synthase, 621, 622f, 624
HMP shunt. See Pentose phosphate pathway Hogness (Hogness–Goldberg) box, 255 Holley, Robert, 225
Holliday structure, 244, 244f Holoprotein, 110
Homeostasis
ATP, 394, 403, 408 glycolysis and, 434–435, 447
oxidative phosphorylation and, 482 tricarboxylic acid cycle and, 467, 469 fuel, 623–624, 623f
glucose, 372, 376, 376f, 437 hematologic, 870
metabolic, 377–380 water/fluid, 57, 57f Homocysteine, 790
cysteine from, 774–776, 775f
elevated levels of, 787t, 799–800, 800f
methionine conversion to, 775f, 776, 779, 779f, 790 methionine regeneration from, 779, 790, 798, 798f, 799 as one-carbon-group recipient, 795t
reaction pathways involving, 799, 800f sulfur from, 774–775, 799 Homocysteinemia, 787t
Homocystine, 776
Homocystinuria, 776, 779, 780, 784–785 Homogentisate, 781, 781f, 782f Homogentisate oxidase, 782f, 786t, 787t Homologous chromosomes, 88, 221, 223f, 265 Homologous family of proteins, 89 Homologous recombination, 244, 244f Homovanillylmandelic acid (HVA), 962, 962f Homozygous β-thalassemia, 267, 287, 884 Homozygous state, 88, 90, 222
Hormonal second messengers, cAMP, 159
Hormone(s), 1, 190, 194, 388. See also specific hormones chemical signaling by, 193, 194f
counterregulatory, 376, 377f, 380, 381f, 381t, 843, 845, 846t, 864 fasting state, 34fed state, 24
measuring levels of, 847 mechanisms of action, 385–388 polypeptide, 194, 308
radioimmunoassays for, 864–865, 865f regulating fuel metabolism, 845–866, 846t
signal transduction by, 385–389
for intracellular receptors, 388–389 for plasma membrane receptors, 385–388 steroid, 62, 194, 196–197, 196f Hormone cross-talk, 205
Hormone response element, 197, 305–306 Hormone-sensitive lipase (HSL), 649, 650f, 660, 724 Horseradish peroxidase, 634
Hourly activity factors, 9t H substance, 558f, 559 Humalog, 91, 95, 335
Human epidermal growth-factor receptor (HER2), 349 Human genome, 221–223, 321, 339–340
Human Genome Project, 321, 339–340
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). See HIV/AIDS Human papillomavirus (HPV), 362
Human T-lymphotrophic virus type 1 (HTLV-1), 362 Humulin, 91, 95
Hutchinson–Gilford progeria syndrome (HGPS), 278 Hyaline membrane disease, 634
Hyaluronan, 986
Hyaluronic acid (hyaluronate), 985f, 986, 986t, 987, 988f Hybridization, 220, 221f, 323, 323f
Hydrated gel, of proteoglycans, 986 Hydration shell, 49, 50f
Hydrocarbons, chlorinated aromatic, 75–76 Hydrochloric acid, 51, 56, 415, 739 Hydrocortisone. See Cortisol Hydrogenation of fatty acids, 70 Hydrogen atom, in amino acids, 80, 81f Hydrogen bonds
amino acid, 80
water as solvent and, 49, 50f water molecule, 48–49, 49f Hydrogen breath test, 423
Hydrogen ions (H+), 47, 50. See also Acid(s) excretion of, 55–56
Hydrogen peroxide, 169, 181, 504 characteristics of, 506–507, 507t defense against, 505–516, 514, 515f, 516f fatty acid oxidation to, 607
generation of, 504, 504f, 506, 506f, 507, 508 in phagocytosis and inflammation, 513–514, 513f Hydrolases, 144, 146. See also specific types ly
sosomal, 179, 179f Hydrolytic enzymes, 169 Hydropathic index, 83
Hydrophilic head, of phospholipids, 171f, 172 Hydrophilic molecules or compounds, 65
Hydrophobic core, 100Hydrophobic effect, 80, 102, 105 Hydrophobicity
of amino acids, 80, 83, 84f of lipids, 62, 65
Hydrophobic molecules or compounds, 65 Hydrophobic tails, of phospholipids, 171f, 172 Hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase, 613f, 614 L-3-Hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase, 611t Hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acids (HETEs), 640 Hydroxyethyl radical, 702, 711
Hydroxylases, 144, 408. See also specific types Hydroxylation, 94, 284
Hydroxyl ions (OH−), 47, 50. See also Bases (chemical) Hydroxyl radical, 504, 504f
characteristics of, 506, 507t
generation of, 504, 506, 506f, 507f, 509 ionizing radiation and, 509
membrane attack/lipid peroxidation by, 509–510, 509f, 510f organic radicals from, 507
in phagocytosis and inflammation, 513–514, 513f Hydroxymethylglutaryl coenzyme A. See HMG-CoA Hydroxyproline, 117–118, 777–778, 979, 980f Hyperadrenergic state, 973
Hyperammonemia, 834, 839t
Hypercatabolic states, amino acid metabolism in, 823, 824, 836–838, 838f Hypercholesterolemia, 25, 30, 31t, 686, 687, 689, 695, 975t Hypercortisolemia, 866t
Hyperglycemia, 27, 30, 31t, 379, 390t cataracts in, 435, 441
chronic, in diabetic microvascular disease, 991 in diabetes mellitus type 1, 388–389, 585, 724
in diabetes mellitus type 2, 27, 30, 388–389, 430, 585, 724–725 in diabetic ketoacidosis, 570
glucocorticoid-induced, 568, 571, 585, 587t glucose transporters in, 176
glycogen storage in, 535
hemoglobin glycosylation in, 120, 122 Hyperhomocysteinemia, 799–800 Hyperlipidemia, 29, 30, 31t defective LPL in, 651, 652
familial combined, 634, 649, 658–659, 663t in metabolic syndrome, 660–662, 695–696 statin therapy for, 659, 667–668, 668t Hyperlipoproteinemias, 600 Hyperphenylalaninemia, 772, 782, 783, 784 Hyperplasia, of fat cells, 30 Hypersensitivity reactions, 638, 871 Hypertension
pheochromocytoma and, 954 portal, 918
secondary, 853 sodium intake and, 18 Hyperthyroidism, 860
basal metabolic rate in, 9, 37, 401 bioenergetics in, 375, 395, 401, 403, 409
Graves disease, 481, 499, 500theat production in, 499 Hypertriglyceridemia, 634
Hypertrophy, of fat cells, 30 Hyperuricemia, ethanol-induced, 710 Hypervariable region, 88 Hyperventilation, 48, 55, 56, 57, 58t
Hypochlorous acid (HOCl), 505, 507t, 513–514, 513f Hypochromic anemia, 314, 872, 872t
Hypoglycemia, 372, 377, 378, 382 aldolase B deficiency and, 440 anorexia nervosa and, 568, 579 brain function in, 953
ethanol-induced, 568, 584–585, 587t, 710 excessive insulin dose and, 579
glucose transport to brain in, 428, 429f insulinoma and, 383, 385, 389, 390t, 720
insulin overdose and, 526–527, 538, 539, 568, 579, 587t Jamaican vomiting sickness and, 616
neonatal, 526, 532, 536, 538–539, 540t
neuroglycopenic manifestations of, 381, 383, 568, 579, 584–585 phosphoglucomutase inhibition in, 553, 554
Hypoglycemic coma, 568, 570 Hypoglycemic encephalopathy, 969 Hypoglycin, 616 Hypoglycorrhachia, 957
Hypoketosis, 612 Hypolactasia, adult, 423, 423t Hypotension, 435, 450–451
Hypothyroidism, 9, 375, 858, 859, 860, 866t Hypovolemia, 57
Hypovolemic shock, 191
Hypoxanthine, 215t, 808–811, 809f, 812f in ADA measurement, 811
degradation pathway of, 817, 818, 818f Hypoxanthine–guanine phosphoribosyltransferase (HGPRT) deficiency of, 806, 811
in purine base salvage, 806, 811, 812f Hypoxemia, in COPD, 435, 445, 450–451 Hypoxia, 410, 410f, 434, 492, 953
Hypoxia-inducible factors (HIFs), 410, 445, 521 Hypoxic encephalopathy, 969
IIb
uprofen, 645, 645f I-cell disease, 558 Icterus. See Jaundice
Idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura (ITP), 896 Iduronic acid, 985f, 986
Ileum, vitamin B12 absorption in, 797 Imatinib, 362
Imino acid, 83–85 Immortalized cells, 345, 360 Immune system
chemical messengers in, 190, 194 plasma proteins in, 895
Immunodeficiency disorders, 806. See also HIV/AIDS; Severe combined immunodeficiency syndrome
Immunoglobulin(s), 895antigen-binding by, 114 classes of, 114
production of
gene rearrangement in, 302–303, 303f posttranscriptional processing in, 310, 310f radioimmunoassay of, 116
structure–function relationships in, 114–116 structure of, 114–116, 115f, 116f Immunoglobulin fold, 114, 115f, 116f Immunoglobulin G, 114, 116f Immunoradiometric assays (IRMAs), 865 Impaired fasting glucose, 56, 570
Impaired glucose tolerance, 56 Inactivated vaccines, 338
Inborn errors of metabolism, 531, 772, 784–785, 786t, 787t. See also specific disorders
Inclusion cell (I-cell) disease, 558 Incretin(s), 860–863
Incretin effect, 860 Indinavir, 268, 269 Indirect calorimetry, 9
Induced-fit model, 130, 131–132, 131f, 132f Inducers, 294, 297, 297f, 304–305
Inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), 505, 511 Inducible operon, 297, 298f
Induction, 161, 297, 719, 729t. See also specific processes Ineffective erythropoiesis, 884–885
Inflammation atherosclerosis in, 688–689
cyclooxygenase inhibitors in, 644–645 eicosanoids in, 638
free-radical formation in, 513–514, 513f plasma proteins in, 895
Inhibition, 719, 729t. See also specific processes
reversible, 150, 154–155 simple product, 155, 156 Inhibitor(s)
allosteric, 150, 157–158, 157f competitive, 150, 154–155, 155f, 156f covalent, 128, 140, 141f
definition of, 140, 154
of enzymes, 128, 132–133, 140–143, 150, 154–155 mechanism-based, 128, 140–143
noncompetitive, 150, 154–155, 155f, 156f uncompetitive, 150, 154–155, 155f Inhibitor-1, 535
Initiation complex, in translation, 279–281, 280f Initiation factors, 279–281, 280f, 389 eukaryotic, 311, 311f
INK4 family of proteins, 353
Inner leaflet, of plasma membrane, 171 Inner mitochondrial membrane, 180, 180f Inorganic acids, 47, 51
Inosine monophosphate (IMP)
AMP synthesis from, 808–809, 809f degradation of, 817, 818f
GMP synthesis from, 809, 810f
in purine synthesis, 806, 807f, 808–811structure of, 808, 809f synthesis of, 808
Inosine monophosphate (IMP) dehydrogenase, 806, 809, 810–811, 810f Inositol triphosphate (IP3)
in glycerophospholipid degradation, 655–656 second messenger system, 191
Insertions, 277t, 278, 330 Insoluble fiber, 424 Inspiratory rales, 409
Insulin, 194, 376–390, 719, 843, 845–848. See also Diabetes mellitus action on glucose, 27–28, 369, 372, 373f, 376–380, 377f, 579–581, 580f action on glucose transporters, 428, 428f
in amino acid metabolism, 825
anabolic action of, 376, 378–379, 526–527, 538–539, 845, 846t autonomous hypersecretion of, 383
basal (postabsorptive) state, 35, 36f in cardiac muscle, 939
counterregulation of, 376, 377f, 380, 381f, 381t, 843 denaturation and renaturation of, 117, 118
in diabetes mellitus, 385, 388–389 disulfide bonds of, 109
fasting state, 34, 35–37, 825–826
in fatty acid (lipid) metabolism, 591, 609, 649, 650f, 720–724, 724, 845 in fatty acid storage, 649, 723–724, 845
in fatty acid synthesis, 635, 636
fed state, 24, 26–28, 380, 380f, 385f, 566, 720–724 functions of, 376–377, 379, 381t, 389
glucagon antagonism by, 389 glucokinase activity and, 153, 720 glucose transporters and, 176
in glycogen metabolism, 526, 531, 533, 535, 845, 847 mechanisms of action, 385–388
in metabolic homeostasis, 378–380, 379f metabolic syndrome and, 660–662
overdose of, 526–527, 538, 539, 540t, 568, 579, 587t paracrine actions of, 847
physiologic effects of, 847–848
recombinant (synthetic), 81, 91, 95, 319, 333, 334f, 335 regulators of, 383t
secretion of, 26, 376, 380, 380f, 382–384, 383f, 864 signal transduction by, 200–201, 200f, 201f, 377, 386, 389 sites of action, 379, 379f
in skeletal muscle, 526–527, 538, 539, 941–942 stimulation and inhibition of, 383–384 structure of
A- and B-chains in, 382, 382f species variations in, 91, 92f synthesis of, 376, 381–383 thyroid dysfunction and, 860 in trauma and sepsis, 837
Insulin/glucagon ratio, 526, 531, 719, 723, 724 Insulinlike growth factor(s), 843, 847, 850–853, 851f, 852f
Insulinlike growth factor–binding protein 3 (IGF-BP3), 354–355, 355f Insulinoma, 383, 385, 389, 390t, 720, 724, 728, 732t
Insulin receptor, 200–201, 200f, 201f, 377, 386, 389 Insulin receptor substrate (IRS), 200–201, 386
Insulin resistance, 388–389, 660–662Insulin-sensitive hormone response element (IRE), 389
Insulin therapy
for diabetic ketoacidosis, 56
excessive dose and hypoglycemia in, 568, 579, 587t for type I diabetes mellitus, 81, 91, 95
Integral proteins, 169, 171–172, 171f, 173, 173f Integrase inhibitors, 268
Integrin blockers, 989 Integrins, 978, 989–990
Intercellular signaling pathways, 1 Interferons, 194, 308 Interleukin(s), 194, 869
IL-1, 837, 990–991 IL-6, 362, 837 IL-10, 362 recombinant, 334
Intermediate-density lipoprotein (IDL), 592, 592t, 666, 679t, 680–681, 680f Intermediate filaments (IFs), 169, 183, 184, 184f
Internal elastic lamina, 687, 688f Interphase, 214, 235
Intestinal brush border, 415, 419–421 amino acid carriers in, 742
enzymes of, 25 microvilli of, 415
Intestinal disaccharides, 419–421 Intestine (intestinal epithelium) amino acid absorption in, 738
amino acid metabolism in, 751, 752f, 753, 754f, 832–833, 833f cholesterol absorption in, 669
cholesterol metabolism in, 674–675 fiber metabolism in, 424
glucose metabolism in, 27
protein digestion in, 738, 739–741 sugar absorption in, 426–427 vitamin B12 absorption in, 797 xenobiotic biotransformation in, 914 Intima, 687, 688f
Intracellular fluid (ICF), 48, 49f electrolytes in, 49, 50t
pH and buffering of, 55
Intracellular receptors, 190, 190f, 195–197, 195f, 388–389 Intrinsic factor, 790–791, 797, 797f, 799
Intrinsic pathway of coagulation, 898–900, 899f Introns, 251, 259, 259f, 261, 265, 267t, 310, 310f Invariant region, 88
Iodide, 856–857 organification of, 857 transport of, 856–857 Iodine-123 thyroid scan, 481
Ion-channel receptors, 190, 197
Ionic bonds, amino acid, 80 Ionic interactions, 102, 105 Ionizing radiation
DNA damage from, 240 radicals generated by, 509
Ion product of water (Kw), 51IP3. See Inositol triphosphate Iproniazid, 963
Iron, 875–877
absorption of, 875–876, 877f blood levels of, 295
bound (transferrin), 295, 313–314, 876, 877f, 895t dietary, 875–876
free, 295, 876 function of, 15
in hemoglobin, 486, 487, 874 metabolism of, 877f oxidation states of, 486, 487
in radical formation, 504, 506–507 storage of, 876–877, 877f toxicity of, 876
transcription regulation by, 312, 312f, 314 transport of, 876, 877f
in tricarboxylic acid cycle, 459
Iron chelation, in sickle cell disease, 122 Iron deficiency, 15, 314, 869, 876, 883, 890t in anorexia nervosa, 295, 458, 474
blood characteristics in, 879, 880 electron transport in, 481
in men vs. women, 877
Iron response element-binding protein (IRE-BP), 312, 312f, 314 Iron saturation, 295
Ischemia brain, 953
cardiac, 481, 487, 498–499, 939
Ischemia–reperfusion injury, 499, 505, 508, 509, 519–520, 522t Islets of Langerhans, 376, 380, 381, 847–848
Isocitrate
formation and oxidation of, 459–460, 460f in tricarboxylic acid cycle, 458–460 Isocitrate dehydrogenase, 458, 459, 461, 462 allosteric regulation of, 468–469, 469f
in cancer, 520–521
in gluconeogenesis, 572 irreversible reactions of, 467 Isoelectric point, 87 Isoforms
of hemoglobin, 89–91 of protein, 89–91
Isoleucine, 12, 83, 84f, 85t conversion to glutamine, 830–832, 831f
degradation of, 771, 771f, 779–781, 779f, 780–781, 782 disorders of, 786t
functions of, 827–828
oxidation in skeletal muscle, 823, 825, 827, 830, 831f principles governing interorgan flux, 827–828
and TCA cycle, 469, 472, 472f, 780 Isomaltase, 415, 419, 420f, 421 Isomaltose, 415, 419f, 420 Isomerases, 144, 145f, 146 Isoniazid, 268
Isopentenyl pyrophosphate, 671–672, 672f Isoprene(s), 62, 63f, 72activated
in cholesterol synthesis, 670–672
five-carbon, condensation to squalene, 671–672, 672f mevalonate conversion to, 670–671, 671f
Isoprenyl unit, 63f, 72 Isozymes
of protein, 89–91
of regulatory proteins, 163 tissue-specific, 81
Ito (stellate) cells, 713–714, 714f, 912–913, 928 JJA
K–STAT receptors, 198f, 201–202, 202f, 308, 656–657, 882–883, 882f Jamaican vomiting sickness, 616, 628t
Janus kinase (JAK)-signal transducer, 198f, 201–202, 202f, 308, 656–657, 882–883, 882f
Jaundice, 551, 554, 563t, 927
acute cholecystitis (gallstones) and, 595, 602 ethanol and, 715t
galactosemia and, 436 neonatal, 553
Jejunum, digestive enzymes in, 421 Joules, 5
Journal of Nucleic Acid Research, 96 “Jumping genes” (transposons), 243, 245, 245f
Junctional epidermolysis bullosa (JEB), 984, 994t jun transcription factor, 351, 351f
KKa
(dissociation constant), 47 of acid, 51–52
of amino acids, 80
of binding sites, 101, 109 Kaposi sarcoma, 362 Karyotype analysis, 345 Kc
at (catalytic rate constant), 164–165
Kd (dissociation constant for water), 50–51 Kearns-Sayre syndrome, 491t
Keratan sulfate, 985f, 986, 986t Ketoacidosis
alcohol-induced, 702, 703, 708, 709–710 diabetic, 48, 56, 587t, 609, 626, 628t, 720, 732t acetone in, 48, 63, 569, 570, 609
blood and cellular pH in, 48, 52, 53, 55, 56, 609 coma in, 48, 50
diabetes type 1 vs. type 2, 726
fatty acid metabolism in, 48, 56, 626, 723, 724, 726, 728 follow-up in, 63
hyperventilation in, 55, 56
ketone body measurement in, 63, 64, 75, 569, 609, 624 Kussmaul breathing in, 54, 56, 609, 624
lipid levels in, 720, 723, 724, 726, 728 osmotic diuresis in, 50, 56, 57
patient follow-up in, 63 rehydration therapy for, 50, 51, 56
Ketogenic amino acids, 623, 770, 780f, 781–783, 781f Ketogenic diets, 621, 957
Ketoglutarate. See α-KetoglutarateKetohexose, 66, 66f Ketone(s), 64, 64f, 569
Ketone bodies, 375, 607, 621–625, 918
acetyl coenzyme A from and to, 469, 591, 607, 608f, 621, 622f in alcohol-induced ketoacidosis, 702, 708, 709–710 alternative pathways of metabolism, 623
amino acid degradation to, 623, 770–771, 771f, 780f, 781–783, 781f brain usage of, 34, 38–39, 607, 624, 725t, 957, 968
cardiac use of, 939
in diabetic ketoacidosis, 587t (See also Diabetic ketoacidosis) in fasting, prolonged (starvation), 583, 623, 724–726
in fasting state, 34–38, 36f, 37f, 38t, 39f, 582, 623, 724–726 in fuel homeostasis, 623–624, 623f
functional groups of, 63, 64 generation in normal metabolism, 47 measuring levels of, 41, 63, 75 oxidation of, 621–622, 622f regulation of, 624, 625f
synthesis of, 621, 622f, 624, 625f, 724–726, 918 tissues using, 624, 724, 725t
Ketose, 66, 66f
Ketosis, 612, 621, 623, 624, 625 Ketosugars, 62, 66, 66f Kidney(s)
amino acid metabolism in, 751, 752f, 828–829, 828f, 829f anaerobic glycolysis in, 444
creatine synthesis in, 940f, 941 creatinine as marker of function, 35, 41 diabetes mellitus and, 979, 991–992, 992f excretion of acids, 47, 55–56
fuel sources for, 828–829, 829t glucose metabolism in, 569, 582f ketone body usage by, 37 metabolic capacities of, 37, 38t water loss via, 57
xenobiotic biotransformation in, 914 Kidney failure, 949, 949t
Kidney stones, 81, 87, 739, 774, 776 Kilocalories (kcal), 5
basal metabolic rate, 8–9 daily energy expenditure, 8 weight gain and loss, 10–11 Kilojoule (kJ), 5
Kinases, 144. See also specific kinases nonreceptor, 308
receptors as, 197, 198, 198f, 308 receptors binding, 197, 198, 198f Kinesins, 183, 399
Kinetic barriers, 117 Kmc
oncentration of substrate, 150, 152–154, 152f, 153f, 154f concentration of transported compound, 175, 176f
Kozak consensus, 281 Krabbe disease, 559t Krebs, Hans, 458, 757 Krebs bi-cycle, 759, 759f
Krebs cycle. See Tricarboxylic acid cycleKrebs-Henseleit cycle, 757. See also Urea cycle
Kupffer cells, 713–714, 714f, 912 Kuru, 120
Kussmaul breathing, 54, 56, 570, 609, 703 Kw
(ion product of water), 51
Kwashiorkor, 13, 20t, 423, 740, 748t, 894, 907t LL
abel, for probe, 319, 323, 323f lac operon, 297–299, 298f, 299f Lactase, 25
deficiency of (lactose intolerance), 417, 423–424, 423t, 429 nonpersistent and persistent, 423 Lactase–glycosylceramidase, 415, 421, 421f
Lactate, 28, 34, 36, 38t
in anaerobic glycolysis, 369, 370f, 434, 435f, 444–445, 945 blood levels of, measuring, 450
cardiac use of, 939
conversion to pyruvate, 445, 571, 571f
cycling with glucose (Cori cycle), 445, 445f, 586, 586f fate of, 445