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Bronchoconstriction, 638 Bronchodilation, 638

Brown adipose tissue, 494–496, 495f, 859–860 Brush border, intestinal, 415, 419–421 amino acid carriers in, 742

microvilli of, 415 Brush border enzymes, 25 Buffalo hump, 858

Buffer(s), 47, 47f, 52–56, 53f bicarbonate system of, 47, 53–55, 53f, 55f composition of, 52

effectiveness of, factors determining, 47 hemoglobin function as, 47, 54–55, 55f phosphate, 47, 55–56

Burkitt lymphoma, 348

Burn injury, amino acid metabolism in, 823, 823f, 836 Burst-forming units, 880, 883, 883f

Butyl group, 63

Byetta (exenatide), 863 Bypass polymerases, 236 C C

a2+–ATPase pump, 177–178, 399–400, 410 Ca2+–calmodulin, 143, 150, 159, 160, 160f, 536, 536f Ca2+ uniporter, 496

Cadherins, 356, 356f

Calciferols, 694–695

Calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP), 861t Calcitriol, 694–695

Calcium/calcium ions (Ca2+) in coagulation, 893, 900 function of, 15

in glycogen metabolism, 526, 532, 535–536, 536f, 538 in hypoxia and cell death, 410, 410f

in muscle contraction, 932, 935–936, 936f, 937f in neurotransmitter release, 958, 959f

in platelets, 896

in tricarboxylic acid cycle, 458, 459 Calcium channels

in action potential, 192, 192f

in insulin secretion, 382–383, 383f

Calcium deficiency, 15Calcium ion (Ca2+)–ATPase pump, 177–178, 399–400, 410 Calcium ion (Ca2+)–calmodulin, 143, 150, 159, 160, 160f, 536, 536f

Calcium pump, 177–178, 399–400 Calculi

gallstones, 81, 595, 598, 602, 883 kidney stones, 81, 87, 739, 774, 776 Calculus, 81, 87

Calmodulin, 143, 150, 159, 160, 160f, 536, 536f Caloric value/yield, 394, 406–407

of alcohol (ethanol), 5t, 7, 407

of carbohydrates, 5, 5t, 369, 415, 418 of fats, 5t, 394, 406, 407, 595, 609 of glucose, 406, 407

of proteins, 5t Calories, 5 Calorimetry, indirect, 9 Calpains, 743t

cAMP. See Cyclic adenosine monophosphate Cancer, 212, 344–365. See also specific types apoptosis in, 344, 345

base synthesis as therapeutic target in, 816, 820t Bcl-2 family of proteins in, 360

causes of, 345–346

cell cycle in, 344, 351–355 culture studies of, 345–346

deaths from, 361, 361f definition of, 344, 345

development of, 344, 344f, 360–361, 360f different diseases in, 361–362

DNA alterations in, chemical and physical, 347 DNA damage in, 240, 346, 347–349

DNA repair disorders and, 247, 348–349 familial, 361

gene expression in, 302 insulinlike growth factors in, 853 metastases from, 978, 986, 990

metastasis of, 212, 214, 226, 344, 346, 978 mutations causing, 212, 344, 345–349 gain-of-function, 344, 347–348, 348f, 349, 360 multiple, 344, 360–361

repair enzyme, 348–349 oncogenes in, 344, 346, 349–353

proto-oncogenes in, 212, 344, 346 signal transduction in, 349–351, 355 TNM staging system in, 363 translocation in, 345, 347, 348, 348f tricarboxylic acid cycle and, 520–521

tumor-suppressor genes in, 212, 344, 353–356, 353t viruses and, 362

Cap, of mRNA, 213, 224, 224f, 251, 259–260, 260f, 310 Capillaries, of blood–brain barrier, 956–957, 956f Carbamoyl phosphate

citrulline formation from, 758–759, 759f conversion to UMP, 813, 815f

in pyrimidine synthesis, 759, 806, 813, 814f, 815f

synthesis of, 758, 758f, 813, 814fin urea cycle, 751, 757–759, 817

Carbamoyl phosphate synthetase I (CPSI), 755, 760, 760f, 762, 766t, 813, 814t Carbamoyl phosphate synthetase II (CPSII), 806, 813, 814f, 814t, 816 Carbohydrates, 5, 415–431. See also specific types

absorption of, 24, 25, 415, 425–428 addition of (glycosylation), 92, 93f

calories/energy yield from, 5, 5t, 369, 415, 418 colonic bacteria and, 422

dietary guidelines on, 17 dietary requirements for, 11

digestion of, 5, 24, 25, 26f, 415–425 amylases in, 25, 415, 418–419, 419f glycosidases in, 418, 419–421, 420t overview of, 417f

extracellular matrix, 844

fate in fed state, 24, 24f, 720–724 fatty acid synthesis from, 634 glycemic index of, 425–426, 425t indigestible, 422, 422f malabsorption of, 418

metabolism of, 369–375

general summary of, 726–728, 727f hepatic, 921, 921t

integration with lipid metabolism, 719–732 oxidation of, 5

ring structures of, 67, 68f

structure of, 5, 5f, 62, 66–69, 415, 416f transport of, 415, 426–428

Carbon

α, in amino acids, 80, 81f, 82–83

amino acid, fate of, 751, 751f (See also Amino acid metabolism) in functional groups, 63–65, 64f

nomenclature for, 65 number, in sugars, 66

one-carbon pool, 790, 790f, 793–796

choline and, 795t, 801, 801f hepatic synthesis of donors, 919t

oxidation and reduction in, 793–794, 793f recipients in, 790, 790f, 794–796, 795f, 795t sources in, 790, 790f, 794, 794f, 795t tetrahydrofolate, 790, 790f, 793–796, 793f oxidation and reduction, 64

sources for gluconeogenesis, 34, 570–572 Carbon bonds, 63–64

Carbon dioxide

addition to pyruvate, 472, 472f amino acid conversion to, 770

bicarbonate buffer system and, 53–54, 53f, 55f generation in normal metabolism, 47

glucose conversion to, 27, 369, 370f hemoglobin binding of, 114, 114f

as major source of acids, 47, 53 partial pressure (pCO2), 48, 436

in purine synthesis, 806, 806f, 807f in pyrimidine synthesis, 813, 814f

in tricarboxylic acid cycle, 457, 457f, 459, 459f, 469

Carbonic acid, 47, 51t, 53–55, 53f, 55fCarbonic anhydrase, 53–54, 53f, 55f Carbon–nitrogen groups, 64f

Carbon–oxygen groups, 64f Carbon skeleton, 63 Carbon–sulfur groups, 64f Carbon tetrachloride, 508

Carboxylases, 136, 137f, 146. See also specific types Carboxylate groups, 64, 65f

Carboxylation, 81, 93f, 94, 284 Carboxyl group, 64, 80, 81f, 82–83

Carboxylic acids, 51–52, 55, 64f, 65, 66f Carboxyl terminal, 83

Carboxypeptidases, 25, 738, 739f, 740–741, 740f Carcinogens, 240, 344, 346

chemical, 240, 344, 346, 347, 348f cigarette smoke, 231, 240, 246, 361 radiation, 240, 344, 346, 347, 348f Carcinoma, 231, 346

Cardiac arrhythmias, 505 Cardiac muscle, 932, 934f, 935 bioenergetics of, 395, 402 fuel use in

fatty acid, 624, 939

in ischemic conditions, 939 la

ctate, 939

in normal conditions, 939 glycolysis in, 445, 450, 938, 939 SERCA pump in, 948–949

Cardiac troponins, 81, 101, 122, 160 Cardiolipin, 632, 652, 653f Cardiomyopathies, 949

Caries, dental, 436, 444, 451, 454t Carnitine

dietary sources of, 612

dietary supplements of, 608, 613 disorders or deficiency, 612, 613, 628t in fatty acid metabolism, 607, 608f synthesis, 612

transport into mitochondria via, 612, 612f Carnitine acetyltransferase, 611t Carnitine acyltransferases, 612, 612f Carnitine octanoyltransferase, 611t

Carnitine palmitoyltransferase I (CPTI), 729t

in fatty acid oxidation, 611t, 612, 612f, 617, 618f, 619f, 624, 932, 938, 938f, 939 in heart (cardiac muscle), 939

in hepatic fibrosis, 714

inhibition of, 617, 618f, 637, 639f, 722, 723f, 932, 938 in ketone body synthesis, 624, 625f, 725

in muscle, 932, 938, 938f, 941–942

Carnitine palmitoyltransferase II (CPTII), 612, 612f Carotenoids, 518

Cartilage, 978, 986, 987, 990–991 Cartilage-associated protein (CRTAP), 993 Caspase(s), 357, 357f, 743t Caspase-activated DNase (CAD), 357, 499 Catabolic pathways, 1

Catabolic state, 838f, 839tamino acid metabolism in, 823, 824, 827–828, 836–838 Catabolism, 4

Catabolite activator protein (CAP), 298 Catalase, 505, 515, 515f, 923 Catalysis

acid–base, 128, 132, 133, 135 coenzymes in, 128, 130, 134–139 cofactor, 134

covalent, 133 enzymes in, 128–147

functional groups in, 128, 130, 134–139 metal-ion, 133, 139

pH and, 128, 139, 140f RNA in, 224

strategies for, 128, 133–134 temperature and, 128, 139 Catalysis by approximation, 133 Catalysts, definition of, 128 Catalytic antibodies, 133

Catalytic rate constant (kcat), 164–165 Cataracts, 435, 441

Catecholamines, 388, 853–854, 953, 959–963. See also Dopamine; Epinephrine; Norepinephrine

counterregulation by, 843, 853, 854 inactivation and degradation of, 961–963, 962f metabolism and inactivation of, 854 physiologic effects of, 853

receptors of, 853–854 release of, 853, 961 storage of, 961, 961f

synthesis of, 834, 853, 959–961, 960f

tumors secreting, 853, 954, 961, 963, 964, 973, 975t Catechol O-methyltransferase (COMT), 962, 962f Catenins, 356, 356f

Cathepsins, 738, 743t, 744

Cations, distribution in body fluids, 49, 50t Caveolae, 175, 178

CCAAT enhancer-binding protein, 309 CD4 proteins, 269, 270f

cdc25A protein, 352

Cdk4 protein, 352–353, 352f Cdk6 protein, 352–353, 352f

cDNA (complementary DNA), 245, 245f Celecoxib (Celebrex), 645

Cell(s), 169–186

bacterial vs. human, 185–186 bioenergetics of, 394–411 compartmentation in, 170–171 components of, 169, 170f diversity of types, 169 eukaryotic, 171

genome of, 211

immortalized, 345, 360

nucleus of, 169, 170f, 181, 181f organelles of, 169, 170–184, 170f prokaryotic, 171, 185

Cell adhesion, tumor-suppressor genes and, 356, 356f Cell body (soma), 955, 955fCell cycle, 235–236, 236f cancer and, 344, 351–355

checkpoints in, 344, 352, 352f G (gap) phases of, 235–236, 236f hepatic, 236

M phase of, 230, 236, 236f oncogenes and, 351–353, 352f p53 protein in, 354–355, 355f S phase of, 230, 235–236, 236f

tumor-suppressor genes regulating, 353–355 Cell death

active transport and, 410, 410f mitochondria and, 358, 358f, 481, 482, 499 necrosis, 410, 481

programmed death of (See Apoptosis)

Cell division, in mitosis, 214, 221, 230, 236, 236f Cell membrane. See Plasma membrane

Cell recognition factors, 544 Cell signaling, 190–208 cancer and, 345, 349–351 receptors for, 190–191 sequence of, 191

termination of, 192, 206, 206f Cell sorting, 880

Cell and tissue specialization, 1

Cellular respiration, 372–374, 374f, 394. See also specific processes in mitochondria, 374, 374f

in tricarboxylic acid cycle, 457 Cellulose, 422f, 424t

Central dogma, 226

Central nervous system (CNS). See also Brain cells of, 953, 954–956

components of, 954–955 demyelinating diseases of, 973–974 lipid synthesis in, 970–972

lipid vs. protein composition of, 971, 972t myelin proteins in, 972

myelin sheaths in, 955–956, 971–972

Central obesity, in Cushing disease or syndrome, 858 Centriole, 170f

Ceramide(s), 72, 72f, 544, 558, 558f sphingolipid synthesis from, 656, 657f synthesis of, 633, 656, 656f

Ceramide lactoside lipidosis, 559t

Cerebrosides, 72, 72f, 558–559, 558f, 633, 656, 971–972 Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), 953

lo

w glucose concentration in, 957 Cerebrovascular accident (CVA), 953 atherosclerosis and, 689

sickle cell disease and, 121–122 Ceruloplasmin, 876, 895t

c-fos proto-oncogene, 362 CG islands, 302 Chaperones, 274, 284 Chaperonins, 101, 117

Charcot-Marie-Tooth polyneuropathy syndrome, 974 Chargaff, Erwin, 216Charge

of functional group, 64, 65f

of functional group, partial, 65, 65f

Charged amino acids, 80, 84f, 85t Checkpoints, in cell cycle, 344, 352, 352f “Cheese effect,” of MAO inhibitors, 963, 975t Cheilosis, 474

Chemical bond energy, 394

Chemical carcinogens, 240, 344, 346, 347, 348f Chemical damage, to DNA, 240, 240f

Chemical messengers. See also specific types autocrine, 190, 193, 194f

cell signaling by, 190–208 receptors for, 190–191 sequence of, 191 termination of, 192 endocrine, 190, 193, 194f endocrine system, 190, 194

general features of, 190, 190f, 191–195 immune system, 190, 194

nervous system, 190, 194 paracrine, 190, 193, 194f receptors of, 190, 190f secretion of, 190, 190f target cells of, 190 types of, 193–195

Chemical synthesis of DNA, 322

Chemical uncouplers, of oxidative phosphorylation, 494, 495f Chemiosmotic hypothesis, 480, 480f, 482

Chemokines, 194

Chemotherapy, 212. See also specific agents carcinogenic potential of, 347

Chenocholic acid, cholesterol conversion to, 675–676, 675f, 676f Chief cells, of stomach, 739

Chimeric DNA, 322

Chips, DNA (microarrays), 319, 332–333, 362 Chirality, 66–67, 67f

Chloramphenicol, 283, 289, 289t Chloride

in cystic fibrosis, 320, 741 distribution in body fluids, 49, 50t function of, 15

Chlorinated aromatic hydrocarbons, 75–76 Chlorinated dibenzofurans (CDFs), 76f Chlorodibenzo-p-dioxins (CDDs), 76, 76f Cholecalciferol, 196, 196f, 666, 694–695, 695f Cholecystitis, 595, 602, 604t Cholecystokinin, 594, 596, 848

Cholera, 170, 171, 175, 185, 187t, 207, 208t, 430, 431t dehydration in, 177, 182, 185, 205, 207

glucose transporters in, 430 G-protein in, 182 hypovolemic shock in, 191

Cholera toxin, 94, 175, 182, 185, 191, 205, 430 Cholesterol, 62, 72, 591–593, 666–699

bile salts from, 666, 667, 675–678

conversion ofto cholic acid and chenocholic acid, 675–676, 675f, 676f to progesterone, 690–692, 691f

dietary, 17, 666 digestion of, 594, 666

elevated levels of, 25, 30, 31t, 634, 658–659, 667–668, 685, 687, 695 fates of, 674–675

fed state, 27, 29

free form of, 669, 675, 678 function of, 591

HDL as “good,” 688 intestinal absorption of, 669 measuring levels of, 634, 669

metabolism of, 591, 591f, 674–675, 918

packaging of, 26, 27, 29, 666, 674. See also Chylomicron(s); Lipoprotein(s) in plasma membrane, 171f, 173, 174f, 666

receptor-mediated endocytosis of, 178, 684–685, 684f reverse transport of, 681–682, 682f

steroid hormones from, 591, 666, 667, 674, 689–695, 691f structure of, 72, 73f, 669, 670f

synthesis of, 72, 666, 669–674, 918

HMG-CoA reductase regulation in, 673–674, 674f isoprene condensation to squalene in, 671–672, 672f

mevalonate conversion to activated isoprenes in, 670–671, 671f mevalonate synthesis from acetyl-CoA in, 670, 670f

squalene conversion to steroid nucleus in, 672–673, 673f transport of, 666, 678–684

Cholesterol desmolase, 690

Cholesterol esterase, 594, 597, 597f, 634

Cholesterol esters, 594, 597f, 666–667, 669, 674, 674f, 678 in HDL interactions, 683–684, 683f, 688

in HDL synthesis, 682, 682f

in receptor-mediated endocytosis, 684–685, 684f in VLDL structure, 599f

Cholesterol ester transfer protein (CETP), 667, 683–684, 683f, 684f, 688 Cholesterol-lowering drugs, 197, 667–668, 668t, 696t

for atherosclerosis, 688, 695–696 bile acid resins, 696t

ezetimibe, 669, 670, 695, 696, 696t fibrates, 696t, 698, 923

niacin, 659, 696t

statins, 659, 667–668, 668t, 670, 673, 688, 695–696, 696t, 915 Cholesterol oxidase, 634

Cholic acid

cholesterol conversion to, 675–676, 675f, 676f conjugation of, 676, 677f

structure of, 678f Choline

acetylcholine synthesis from, 953, 965–966, 966f dietary requirement (RDA), 14t

increasing brain levels of, 966

and one-carbon metabolism, 795t, 801, 801f synthesis of, 966

Choline deficiency, 14t Chondrocytes, 990–991, 991f

Chondroitin sulfate, 844, 985f, 986–987 functions of, 986t

synthesis of, 986–987, 987fChromatids, sister, 214 Chromatin, 170f, 181, 181f, 214, 221, 301

“beads on a string” structure of, 221, 221f Chromatin remodeling, 294, 301–302 Chromogenic assay, automatic, 894 Chromogranins, 961, 961f

Chromosomal proteins histone, 221, 222, 222f nonhistone, 221

Chromosome(s), 211, 214, 220–223 autosomal, 221, 222f

diploid cell, 221, 222f, 265 DNA packaging in, 221

ends (telomeres) of, 230, 238–240, 239f eukaryotic vs. prokaryotic, 267t

gene arrangement in, 221–223 haploid cell, 221, 222f, 265 homologous, 88, 221, 223f, 265 karyotype analysis of, 345 recombination of, 211, 230, 243–245 sex, 221, 222f

Chromosome walking, 331

Chronic alcoholic cirrhosis, 703, 712–713 Chronic granulomatous disease, 513, 522t Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL), 360

Chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML), 295, 313–314, 315t, 345 interferon therapy for, 308, 362

lymp

hocyte percentage in, 295

Philadelphia chromosome in, 295, 303, 313–314, 345, 349, 362 stem cell transplantation for, 362

tyrosine kinase inhibitor for, 362 white blood cell count in, 295, 362

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), 435, 445, 454t Chronic pancreatitis, 602

Chylomicron(s), 29, 591–592, 592t, 594, 598–602 abetalipoproteinemia and, 602–603, 604t, 648, 663t characteristics of, 679t

cholesterol in, 598–599, 666, 678–679 composition of, 598–599, 599f density of, 600

exocytosis of, 600

fate of, 601–602, 601f, 723–724 fed state, 24–26, 29, 723–724 HDL interaction with, 683, 683f mature, 594, 600, 600f

microsomal triglyceride transfer protein and, 602–603, 603f, 648 nascent, 594, 600, 600f

secretion into lymph, 594, 600 synthesis of, 594, 598–599, 599f, 678 transport in, 600–603, 678–679

triacylglycerols in, 591–592, 592f, 594, 598–602, 649, 723–724 VLDL vs., 591, 648

Chylomicron remnants, 592, 594, 601–602, 666, 679t, 685 Chymotrypsin, 25, 83, 85, 128, 133, 738, 739f, 740–741, 740f, 741f Chymotrypsinogen, 740, 740f

Cigarette smoke

as carcinogen, 231, 240, 246, 361and COPD, 435 Cip/Kip family of proteins, 353 Ciprofloxacin, 233

Cirrhosis, 712, 713t, 929t

alcohol-induced, 702, 703, 708, 712–714, 911, 918, 926–928 amino acid metabolism in, 926

blood glucose levels in, 927

hepatic fibrosis in, 713–714, 927–928 Laennec, 712, 926

lipid metabolism in, 925, 927 micronodular, 926

cis-fatty acids, 70, 71f cis Golgi network, 182

cis-trans isomerase, in protein folding, 117 Cistron, 256f, 258

Citrate

in fatty acid synthesis, 631, 635–636 formation of, 631

in TCA cycle, 459

Citrate cleavage enzyme, 635, 635f Citrate lyase, 635, 635f, 721, 722f, 729t Citrate synthase, 459, 461 compartmentation and, 474

irreversible reactions of, 467 regulation of, 468, 468f Citric acid, 51t

Citric acid cycle. See Tricarboxylic acid cycle Citrulline

formation of, 758–759, 758f

reaction with aspartate, 759 in urea cycle, 751, 757–759 Clarithromycin, 275, 283 Clathrin, 684

Clathrin-coated pits, 180, 684 Clathrin-coated vesicles, 178, 179–180 Clonal expansion, 346, 361

Cloning animal, 337

DNA, 327–329, 328f positional, 331

Cloning vectors, 319, 327, 328f

for constructing DNA libraries, 328–329 Clopidogrel, 906

Clorgyline, 963

Clostridium perfringens, 172

Clotting factors, 893–894, 896–902, 899t. See also specific factors activation of, 898–900

assays for, 894 complexes of, 900–901 deficiency of, 894

Cloverleaf structure, of tRNA, 213, 225 c-myc transcription factor, 348, 351 Co-activators, 257, 257f

Coagulation, 843–844, 893, 895–904 clotting factors in, 893–894, 896–902 cross-linking of fibrin in, 900, 900f

drugs inhibiting, 905–906extrinsic pathway of, 898, 899f factor complexes in, 900

feedback amplification and inhibition of, 901–903 hemostatic plug formation in, 896–897

intrinsic pathway of, 898–900, 899f platelet activation in, 896–897, 896f process of, 898–901

proteases in, 161, 895, 897–904, 898f proteins of, 899t

regulation of, 893, 895, 901–903 protein C in, 902, 902f

protein S in, 902, 902f serpins in, 902–903 thrombin in, 902, 902f

turning off (fibrinolysis), 893, 895, 903–904 vitamin K in, 900–901, 901f

zymogens in, 843, 897, 898 Coagulation cascade, 893, 897, 899f CoASH, 461, 463, 463f

Coated pits, 684 Cobalamin. See Vitamin B12

Cockayne syndrome, 247, 248t

Coding region, of mRNA, 213, 224, 224f Coding strand, of DNA, 254, 254f

Codons, 211, 213, 224, 224f, 254, 254f, 274, 274f, 275–277 nonsense, 276

start, 224, 224f, 274 stop, 224, 224f, 274 table of, 276, 276t wobble hypothesis of, 276

Coenzyme(s), 13, 128, 130, 134–139 activation-transfer, 134–136, 135f, 137f amino acid metabolism, 769, 772 coagulation, 897

neurotransmitter synthesis, 844, 953 noncatalytic roles of, 139 oxidation–reduction, 134, 136–139, 404 tricarboxylic acid cycle, 461–466

vitamins as, 134

Coenzyme A (CoA), 16, 27, 136, 137f. See also specific types in bile salt conjugation, 676, 677f

in tricarboxylic acid cycle, 463–464 Coenzyme Q (CoQ)

dietary supplement of, 608, 613

in electron-transport chain, 482, 485–487, 485f structure of, 485, 485f

superoxide generation from, 504, 507, 508f Cofactor catalysis, 134. See also Coenzyme(s) Coils, 105

Colchicine, 75, 143, 170, 183, 185, 807 Colipase, 594, 596–597, 596f

Collagen, 101, 109, 117–118, 844, 978, 978f, 979–983 endostatin-forming, 980

fibril-associated, 980, 982 fibril-forming, 980–982 glycosylation of, 119, 120

in hepatic fibrosis, 927–928hydroxylation of proline and lysine residues in, 979, 980f

integrins and, 989 network-forming, 980, 982

in osteogenesis imperfecta, 982, 992–993 oxidation of lysine residues in, 980, 981f periodic beaded filament-forming, 980 polymerization of, 118, 979

proteoglycan interactions with, 987, 988f secretion of, 982–983

structure of, 980, 982f

synthesis of, 118, 119f, 982–983, 983t transmembrane, 980, 982

triple helix of, 118, 118f type I, 117, 979, 980–982, 981t type IV, 980–982, 982f

types of, 980–982, 981t vitamin C and, 118, 118f, 979

Colon cancer, 214, 224, 225–226, 345, 346, 791, 803t deaths from, 361, 361f

development of, 360f, 361 5-fluorouracil for, 819 metastatic, 363

Colonic bacteria, sugar metabolism by, 422, 422f Colony-forming unit(s), 880, 881f, 883, 883f Colony-forming unit–erythroid, 880 Colony-forming unit–lineage, 880 Colony-stimulating factors, 194 Colony-stimulating factors, recombinant, 334

Colorectal cancer, hereditary nonpolyposis, 242, 247, 248t, 349, 363 Coma, hypoglycemic, 568, 570

Common bile duct, 911 Common Smad (Co-Smad), 203 Communication, 1

Community-acquired pneumonia, 214

Comparative gene identification-58 (CGI-58), 650 Compartmentalization, defense through, 514, 515f Compartmentation

in cells, 170–171

of enzymes, 150, 151, 163–164

of mitochondrial enzymes, 474–475

Competitive inhibitors, 150, 154–155, 155f, 156f Complementary DNA (cDNA), 245, 245f, 319, 322, 323 Complementary DNA (cDNA) libraries, 327–329 Complementary regulation, 150

Complement system, 895 Complete blood count (CBC), 872