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.pdfcoupling in, 493–496
electrochemical potential gradient in, 480, 480f, 483, 483f electron transfer from NADH to O2 in, 482
ethanol and, 711 high-energy bonds in, 480 inhibition of, 489, 490t
NADH shuttle systems in, 488–489, 488f overview of, 482–484
oxidation–reduction reactions in, 484–486, 485f coenzyme Q in, 482, 485, 485f
copper and reduction of oxygen in, 485f, 486 cytochromes in, 482, 485–486, 485f
NADH:CoQ oxidoreductase in, 484, 485f
succinate dehydrogenase and other flavoproteins in, 484, 485f regulation of, 481, 494, 494f
sequential transfer in, 485f, 489 in thermogenesis, 494–496, 495f uncoupling in, 481, 493, 494–496 chemical uncouplers in, 494, 495f proton leak in, 481, 494, 496
uncoupling proteins in, 494–496, 495f
Oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) diseases, 481, 490–493, 491t Oxidative stress, 505, 505f
Oxidized functional groups, 64, 64f Oxidized sugars, 68–69, 69f Oxidoreductases, 136–139, 144 Oxygen
antibonding electrons of, 506 as biradical, 504, 504f, 506 brain requirement for, 953
copper and reduction of, 485f, 486
electronegativity of, 65electron transfer from NADH to, 482 in fatty acid desaturation, 637–638
functional groups, 62 hepatic consumption of, 921 la
ck of (hypoxia), 410, 410f partial pressure (pO2), 48, 436
reactive oxygen species from, 504, 504f reduction potential of, 406, 407 singlet, 507t
spin restriction of, 506
Oxygenases, 144, 395, 407–408, 407f, 508 Oxygen binding
heme and, 110–111, 111f hemoglobin, 109–114, 111f agents affecting, 112–114, 113f
2,3-bisphosphoglycerate and, 113, 113f cooperativity of, 112, 112f, 123–124, 123f proton binding (Bohr effect) and, 113–114, 113f myoglobin, 109–111
Oxygen consumption, 408, 408f
Oxygen radicals, 504–505. See also Oxygen toxicity Oxygen saturation curve
for hemoglobin, 110, 110f, 112 for myoglobin, 110, 110f Oxygen toxicity, 504–511
cellular defenses against, 505, 514–519 antioxidant scavenging enzymes in, 515–516 compartmentalization in, 514, 515f
glutathione defense system in, 505, 515–516, 516f, 543, 548–549, 549f nonenzymatic antioxidants in, 516–519
damage from, 504, 504t, 509–511, 510f
disease states associated with, 504, 504t, 509, 522t DNA, 511
ethanol and, 702, 710–712, 711f
membrane attack/lipid peroxidation, 509–510, 509f, 510f protein and peptide, 511
in neurodegenerative disease, 504, 953 oxidative stress from, 505, 505f
in phagocytosis and inflammation, 513–514, 513f
radical reactions with cellular components in, 509–511, 509f ROS cellular sources in, 507–509
ROS characteristics in, 506–507, 507t ROS generation in, 504, 504f, 505–509 Oxypurinol, 818
PP
0 protein, 972, 974
p21 protein, 354, 355f
p53 protein, 354–355, 355f
p53 tumor-suppressor gene, 353–355, 361 Packaging of DNA, 221, 221f, 222f
Packaging of lipids. See Chylomicron(s); Micelles Palindromic sequences of DNA, 321–322
Palmitate, 6f, 72, 406 activation of, 637 metabolism of, 634
oxidation of, 609–610synthesis of, 631, 634, 636–637, 722, 723 Palmitic acid, 69, 614, 615, 638, 922
Palmitoleic acid, 70 Palmitoylation, 92, 93f
Palmitoyl coenzyme A (palmitoyl-CoA), 632–633, 636, 637, 640f, 656 Pancreas
endocrine, 381–382 exocrine, 419
glucagon synthesis and secretion by, 376, 381–382, 384–385, 847–848 insulin synthesis and secretion by, 26, 376, 380, 380f, 381–384, 383f, 848 thyroid hormone and, 859
zymogen synthesis and storage in, 740–741, 742 Pancreatic amylase, 595
α-amylase, 415, 418–419, 419f
Pancreatic enzymes, 25, 740–741. See also specific enzymes Pancreatic enzyme supplementation, 739, 745–746, 748t Pancreatic lipase, 594, 596–597, 597f
Pancreatic lipase inhibitor, 601 Pancreatic polypeptide (PP), 860 Pancreatitis, 419, 595, 597, 602, 604t Pantothenate, 463
Pantothenic acid coenzyme A from, 27 deficiency of, 14t
dietary requirement (RDA), 14t in tricarboxylic acid cycle, 459
Para-aminobenzoic acid (PABA), 791, 792, 792f Paracrine messengers, 190, 193, 194f Paralogs, 89, 90f
Parathion, 129f, 140 Parenteral feeding, 452
Parkinson disease, 504, 505, 508, 509, 519, 519f, 522t, 962 Partial charge, of functional group, 65, 65f
Partial fatty acid oxidation (pFOX) inhibitors, 939 Partial pressure of gases, 48, 436
Passive transport, 174–175, 175f, 176f Patched/Smoothened signaling system, 355, 356f, 362 PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls), 75–76, 76f
PCDDs (polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins), 76, 76f PCNA (proliferating cell nuclear antigen), 238, 238t PCR (polymerase chain reaction), 319, 329, 329f PDGF/Akt/BAD pathway, 360
Pear shape, 30
Pearson syndrome, 491t Pectins, 424–425, 424t
Pelizaeus-Merzbacher disease, 974 Pellagra, 14t, 746, 782
Pendred syndrome, 857 Pendrin, 857 Penicillin, 140, 141f
Pentane, from lipid peroxidation, 509 Pentanyl group, 63
Pentose phosphate pathway, 369, 370f, 371, 371f, 437, 543–550, 543f, 669, 920–921 detoxification in, 543
direction of, cellular needs dictating, 550t fatty acid synthesis in, 543, 543f, 548–550
glycolipid synthesis in, 544glycoprotein synthesis in, 544 nonoxidative phase of, 371f, 543–544, 543f, 546–548, 548f nucleotide synthesis in, 543, 543f
oxidative phase of, 371f, 543, 543f, 545–546, 545f, 548f and red blood cells, 548–549, 549f, 843, 849, 873f, 874 reversible reactions of, 546, 548
ribulose 5-phosphate conversion to glycolytic intermediates in, 546–547, 546f, 547f sequence of events in, balanced, 548, 548f
sugar interconversions in, 543f, 544 Pentoses, 66
Pepsin, 25, 738, 739–741, 739f, 740f, 741f Pepsinogen, 739, 740f
Peptide(s)
affecting fuel metabolism, 860–863, 861t radical damage to, 511
Peptide backbone, 100, 102–103, 102f
Peptide bonds, 80, 82–83, 83f, 274, 282f, 283 Peptide YY (PYY), 860
Peptidoglycan, 171
Peptidyl (P) site, on ribosome, 280–281, 280f Peptidyltransferase, 283
Perilipin(s), 650, 660
Perilipin 1 (PLIN1), 650 Peripheral nervous system (PNS) cells of, 953, 955, 956
lipid synthesis in, 970–972 myelin proteins in, 972
myelin sheaths in, 956, 971–972, 971f Peripheral neuropathy
in diabetes mellitus, 441, 844 sorbitol in, 441
Peripheral proteins, 171–172, 171f, 173f, 174 Peripheral tissues, fate of glucose in, 579–580
Perisinusoidal (stellate) cells, 713–714, 714f, 912–913, 928 Pernicious anemia, 797, 799, 803t
Peroxidases, 407, 508
Peroxidation, lipid, 509–510, 509f, 510f ethanol and, 711–712
vitamin E as defense against, 517, 517f Peroxisomal enzyme deficiencies, 620 Peroxisomal fatty acid oxidase, 508 Peroxisomal function disorders, 954 Peroxisomal oxidation, 607, 618–621, 923 α, 607, 620, 620f
β, 607, 618–620, 619f
of long-chain branched-chain fatty acids, 620, 620f regulation of, 621
of very-long-chain fatty acids, 618–620, 619f, 923
Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor(s) (PPAR), 197, 923
Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-α (PPAR-α), 197, 657–658, 698, 923, 924t Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ (PPAR-γ), 197, 309, 698
Peroxisomes, 169, 181
Peroxynitrite, 507t, 512–513, 512f Peroxy radical, 507, 507t Pertussis toxin, 94
PEST sequences, 745
Peutz-Jeghers syndrome (PJS), 697pH blood, 53
buffers and, 47, 47f, 52–56
and enzyme action, 128, 139, 140f extracellular, 53–55
hemoglobin binding and, 113–114, 113f intracellular, 55
and lysosomal hydrolases, 179, 179f neutral, 51
and protein denaturation, 119, 739–740 urine, 55–56
water, 47, 50–51 Phagocytosis, 180
free-radical formation in, 513–514, 513f neutrophils in, 180, 871
Phase I reactions, in detoxification, 914, 914f Phase II reactions, in detoxification, 914, 914f Phen/fen, 973
Phenobarbital, 877 Phenoxybenzamine, 963, 973 Phentermine, 973 Phenylacetate, 762–763, 763f
Phenylalanine, 12, 84f, 85, 85f, 85t
conversion to tyrosine, 769, 770f, 771, 778, 781, 959, 960f degradation of, 771, 771f, 778, 781, 781f, 782f
disorders of, 772, 782, 783, 784, 785, 786t, 787t hydroxylation of, 781, 783f
Phenylalanine hydroxylase (PAH), 781, 782f, 783f, 784–785, 786t, 787t, 959 Phenylbutyrate, 762–763, 763f
Phenylethylamines, 962 Phenyl group, 63, 63f
Phenylketonuria (PKU), 772, 784, 785, 787t, 958 Pheochromocytoma, 853, 954, 961, 963, 964, 973, 975t Philadelphia chromosome, 295, 303, 313–314, 345, 349, 362 Phlorizin hydrolase, 421
Phosphatases, 179 Phosphate
in DNA, 215–218, 216f, 217f, 219f in nucleotides, 213
in tricarboxylic acid cycle, 459 Phosphate bonds
of ATP, 394, 396, 396f, 402–403 in tricarboxylic acid cycle, 459 Phosphate buffer, 47, 55–56 Phosphate groups, 64, 65f Phosphate ions, 55–56 Phosphatidic acid, 71, 72f
in glycerophospholipid synthesis, 632, 651–652, 652f in triacylglycerol synthesis, 632, 647–648, 647f Phosphatidylcholine, 71–72, 72f, 73, 953
in amniotic fluid, 659, 659f ceramide reaction with, 656, 657f in plasma membrane, 172, 172f synthesis of, 632, 652, 653f
Phosphatidylcholine supplementation, 966 Phosphatidylethanolamine, 172, 172f, 652, 653f
Phosphatidylglycerol, 652, 653fPhosphatidylinositol, 172–173, 172f, 200, 200f, 205, 632, 652, 653f
Phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2), 652, 653f
Phosphatidylinositol bisphosphate (PIP2)–Ca2+ signal transduction system, 536, 536f Phosphatidylinositol phosphates, 199–200, 200f
Phosphatidylserine, 172–173, 172f, 652, 653f Phosphoacylglycerols, 62, 71–72, 72f
3′-Phosphoadenosine 5′-phosphosulfate (PAPS), 656, 657f, 776, 987, 987f Phosphoanhydride bonds, 396, 396f
Phosphocholine, 633, 652, 653f Phosphodiesterase inhibitors, 207, 387, 388 Phosphodiester bonds, 213, 213f, 217f, 220, 223 cleavage of, 321, 321f
Phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP)
conversion to fructose 1,6-bisphosphonate, 574, 574f conversion to pyruvate, 439–440, 439f
enzyme activity states and, 575–577 in fasting state, 581
generation from gluconeogenic precursors, 573, 573f in gluconeogenesis, 572–577, 572f, 725f
in glycolysis, 439–440, 439f, 725f high-energy bonds of, 403f oxaloacetate conversion to, 573, 573f
pyruvate conversion to, 572–573, 572f, 575–577
Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PEPCK), 308–309, 309f, 389, 573, 573f, 576–577, 577t, 724, 725f, 729t, 828
Phosphoester, 64f, 65, 66f Phosphofructokinase-1 (PFK-1), 721, 725f deficiency of, 531t
in glycolysis, 434–435, 434f, 438, 439f, 447, 449–450, 922 inhibition at citrate site, 450
isoenzyme subunits of, 449
in muscle metabolism, 942, 943f, 944, 947 regulation of, 448f, 449–450, 449f, 729t
Phosphofructokinase-2 (PFK-2), 449–450, 721, 729t, 922, 932, 938, 941 Phosphoglucomutase, 397, 398, 398f, 402, 528, 528f, 530 Phosphoglucomutase inhibition, 553, 554
6-Phosphogluconate, 551, 552, 721
3-Phosphoglycerate, 438–439, 439f
serine synthesis from, 772–773, 773f, 794, 968 3-Phosphoglycerate dehydrogenase, 773 3-Phosphoglycerate kinase, 438, 439f Phosphoglycerides. See Phosphoacylglycerols Phospholamban, 388
Phospholipase(s), 632, 654–656, 655f Phospholipase A1, 654–655, 655f
Phospholipase A2, 594, 597, 597f, 640, 642f, 655–656, 655f Phospholipase C, 640, 642f, 655–656, 655f
Phospholipase D, 655f, 656 Phospholipids, 27
in coagulation, 893 digestion of, 594
interconversion among, 652, 653f metabolism of, 651–656
in plasma membrane, 171f, 172–173, 172f types of, 651f
Phosphoribosyl pyrophosphate (PRPP), 806, 807f, 808–811, 813, 816 in gout, 818reaction with glutamine, 808, 808f
regulation of, 810–811, 810f synthesis of, 808, 808f
Phosphoribosyl pyrophosphate (PRPP) synthetase, 806, 808, 808f, 810–811, 810f Phosphoribosyltransferases, 806, 811, 812f
Phosphorus functional groups, 62 function of, 15
Phosphorus deficiency, 15
Phosphorylase kinase, 533–536, 534f, 724, 729t Phosphorylases. See also specific types deficiency of, 530
definition of, 529
Phosphorylation, 81, 93f, 94, 284–285, 434, 719, 729t AMP, 810
CREB, 308, 309, 309f, 387 enzyme, 150, 158–159, 158f glucose, 369, 382, 407, 407f
in glycogen metabolism, 533–534, 534f GMP, 810
hierarchical, 534
HMG-CoA reductase, 673–674, 674f
in initiation of translation, 311, 311f insulin and, 389
JAK–STAT receptors, 201–202, 202f oncogene, 349–350, 351f
oxidative, 5, 394, 403–407, 404f, 480–500, 480f (See also Oxidative phosphorylation) substrate-level
in glycolysis, 375, 434, 435f, 436, 438–440, 439f in tricarboxylic acid cycle, 461
synergistic, 534
tyrosine kinase receptor, 198–199, 199f Phosphorylation cascade, 159, 199, 533–534 Phosphorylation-gated channels, 175 Phosphorylcholine, 72f
Phosphoryl transfer reactions, 394, 400–401, 401t Phosphoserine phosphatase, 773
Photosynthesis, glucose production in, 586 Phylloquinone. See Vitamin K
Physical activity. See also Exercise energy expenditures in, 9–10, 9t hourly activity factors, 9t Phytanic acid, 607, 620, 620f Phytosterolemia, 669
PIAS (protein inhibitors of activated STAT), 202 Pioglitazone, 658, 863
Pit cells, hepatic, 913
Pituitary adenylate cyclase activating peptide (PACAP), 861t Pituitary macroadenoma, 849, 850, 851
pKa, 47, 128
Plants, glucose production by, 586 Plaquenil, 269
Plasma, 893
electrolyte composition of, 894 proteins of (See Plasma proteins) transport via, 893
Plasma cell(s), 895Plasma cell dyscrasia, 101, 114 Plasmalogens, 181, 632, 633f, 651, 652–654, 654f Plasma membrane, 169, 170–178, 170f
of bacteria, 171
cholesterol in, 171f, 173, 174f, 666 dynamic composition of, 173 glycocalyx of, 171f, 172, 174
lipid bilayer of, 169, 171–173, 171f permeability of, 50, 410, 410f phospholipids in, 171f, 172–173, 172f proteins in, 169, 171–174, 171f, 173f of red blood cells, 173f, 869, 879–880 structure of, 171–174, 171f
transport across, 169, 174–178, 175f via active transport, 169, 174, 175f via endocytosis, 174, 175f, 178
via facilitative diffusion, 169, 174, 175f, 176f via gated channels, 169, 174, 175–176, 175f hypoxia and, 410, 410f
via passive transport, 175f
via simple diffusion, 174–175, 175f, 176 via vesicular transport, 178
Plasma membrane receptors, 190–191, 190f, 195, 195f, 197–206 cellular effects of, 197
characteristics of, 197 major classes of, 197–198
signal transduction for, 190–191, 197–206, 385–388 Plasma proteins, 893–909
and body fluid maintenance, 894 drugs binding to, 894 functions of, 894
and hemostasis/coagulation, 895–904 hepatic synthesis of, 894, 895t, 918–919 and immune defense, 895
osmotic pressure exerted by, 893, 894, 919 protein malnutrition and, 894
Plasmids, 214–215
as cloning vectors, 327, 328f for constructing DNA library, 328 Plasmin, 903–904, 904f Plasminogen, 903–904, 904f
Plasminogen activator(s), 903–904, 904f
Plasminogen activator, tissue (TPA), 334, 481, 498–499, 687, 903–904, 904f Platelet(s), 869, 871, 896–897
activation of, 896–897, 896f adhesion of, 896, 896f
aggregation of, 643, 647, 843–844, 893, 896–897 decreased, in leukemia, 345
functions of, 870, 896 granules of, 896
in hemostasis (coagulation), 843–844, 893, 895–897 production of, 871, 881f, 896
secretions of, 896–897 thromboxane A2 and, 643, 647
Platelet-activating factor (PAF), 632, 651, 654 Platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF), 195, 896 in hepatic fibrosis, 928as oncogene, 350t Platelet inhibitors, 906
Plavix (clopidogrel), 906 Pneumonia, 214, 227t
antibiotics for, 275, 281, 282, 283, 287 Point mutations, 89, 277t, 278, 330
Pol I, 232–233, 233t
Pol II, 232–233, 233t
Pol III, 232–234, 233t Pol α, 236–238, 237t
Polar amino acids, 80, 83, 84f Polar bonds, 65, 66f
and reactivity, 65, 66f and solubility, 65, 66f Pol β, 237t
Pol δ, 236–238, 237t Pol ε, 236–238, 237t Pol η, 236, 237t Pol γ, 236, 237t Poliomyelitis, 284 Pol ι, 236, 237t Pol κ, 236, 237t
Polyadenylation, 260, 261f, 310 Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), 75–76, 76f
Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs), 76, 76f Polycistronic transcript, 258, 296
Polydipsia, 379, 570
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR), 319, 329–331, 329f Polymorphisms, 80, 89, 319
caused by repetitive DNA, 331, 331f detection of, 319, 330–333
by allele-specific oligonucleotide probes, 330 by polymerase chain reaction, 330–331
in ethanol metabolism, 702, 706 markers for disease, 331
restriction fragment length (RFLPs), 330 single nucleotide (SNPs), 339–340 Polymorphonuclear leukocytes, 870–871 Polynucleotides, 213, 213f, 216, 217f Polyol, 68, 69f
Polyol pathway, 435, 435f, 441, 441f Polypeptide chains, 80, 82 elongation of, 274, 282–284, 282f Polypeptide hormones, 194, 308
Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase 1 (PARP-1), 364 Polysaccharides, 5, 62, 69, 418
Polysomes, 274, 284, 284f
Poly(A) tail, of mRNA, 213, 224, 224f, 251, 259–261, 259f, 261f, 310, 310f Polyunsaturated fatty acids, 62, 69–70, 71f, 504, 609
dietary sources of, 638 eicosanoids from, 632, 638 Polyuria, 50, 379, 568, 570 Pol ζ, 236, 237t
Pompe disease, 179, 531t Pores. See Gated channels Porins, 180, 481, 497
Porphobilinogen, 875, 875f, 876fPorphyrias, 843, 869, 875f, 876, 890t Porphyrin, 874, 874f. See also Heme
Porphyrinogens, 875, 875f, 876 Portal hypertension, 918 Portal–systemic encephalopathy, 760
Portal vein, 27, 29, 910, 911, 911f, 913 Positional cloning, 331
Positive (basic) amino acids, 80, 84f, 85t, 86–88 Positive control, 294, 297
Positive cooperativity, 112, 112f Postabsorptive (basal) state, 35, 36f interorgan flux in amino acids in, 825–828, 826f Postprandial state, 35
amino acid metabolism in, 835, 835f
glucose levels in, 35, 56, 566, 568f, 578–584, 578f Poststreptococcal glomerulonephritis (PSGN), 933, 941, 948 Postsynaptic membrane, 192f
Posttranslational modifications, 81, 91–94, 93f, 182, 284–285, 285t Potassium
in action potential, 192–193, 193f distribution in body fluids, 49, 50t function of, 15
Potocytosis, 178
Prader-Willi syndrome, 302, 315t Pralidoxime, 143
Pramlintide, 847
Prealbumin, 835 Prediabetes, 56, 570
Prednisone, 295, 568, 571, 633 Prefixes, for clinical conditions, 375 Pregnancy
malnutrition in, and neonatal hypoglycemia, 526, 532, 538 prenatal testing in, 327
Pregnane X receptor (PXR), 197 Pregnenolone, 691f, 692, 855 Premature infants
oxygen toxicity in, 516 polypeptides in blood of, 743
respiratory distress syndrome in, 634, 655, 659, 663t Premature ventricular contractions, 505
Pre-mRNA, 224, 251, 259 Prenatal testing, 327 Prenylation, 92, 93f, 284 Preprocollagen, 982–983 Preprosomatostatin, 848 Pressure-gated channels, 175 Presynaptic membrane, 192, 192f Presynaptic terminal, 953 Primary active transport, 177 Primary amines, 64, 65f Primary oxaluria type 1, 787t
Primary structure of proteins, 80, 82, 100, 100f, 102 folding determined by, 117
polymorphisms in, 80, 89 species variations in, 91, 92f variations in, 80–81, 88–91
Primary transcript, 251Primase, 234, 238, 238t Primer, for DNA replication, 230, 234, 237–238 Priming the pump, in glycolysis, 437, 437f Prion diseases, 119–121, 125t
Prion proteins, 101, 119–121, 121f, 174 Probes, 323, 323f
allele-specific oligonucleotide, 330 la
bel for, 319, 323, 323f stringency of, 323
Procarboxypeptidases, 740–741, 740f Processivity, of DNA polymerase, 233, 238 Procollagen, 118, 979, 982–983
Product, enzyme, 128, 150
Product inhibition, simple, 155, 156 Proelastase, 740, 740f
Proenzymes, 161, 897 Progeria, 278 Progesterone
cholesterol conversion to, 690–692, 691f synthesis of, 694
Progestogens, synthesis of, 689–692, 690t, 693–694, 694 Proglucagon, 384, 847–848
Programmed cell death. See Apoptosis Prohormones, 376
Proinsulin, 376, 382, 382f Prokaryotes
cells of, 171, 185 DNA of, 214, 267
DNA synthesis in, 231–234 base-pairing errors in, 234
bidirectional replication in, 231, 232f DNA ligase in, 234, 235f
DNA polymerases in, 232–233, 233f, 233t DNA unwinding in, 232, 232f
eukaryotic vs., 234–235
at replication fork, 234, 235f
semiconservative replication in, 230f, 231, 232f eukaryotes vs., 171, 265–267, 267t
gene expression regulation in, 294, 296–300 attenuation of transcription in, 294, 300, 300f corepressors in, 297, 298f
inducers in, 297, 297f
operons in, 294, 296–300, 296f–298f repressors in, 294, 296–297, 297f
stimulation of RNA polymerase in, 298–299, 299f genome of, 223
promoters in, 255–256, 256f ribosomes of, 224, 225f
transcription in, 251, 253, 255–258, 256f, 258f, 294, 296–300 translation in, 281, 281f, 281t
Proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA), 238, 238t Proline, 83–85, 84f, 85t, 103
in collagen, 979, 980f
degradation of, 771, 771f, 777–778, 777f synthesis of, 770f, 776, 777, 777f
Prolonged fasting (starvation), 34, 37–40, 39f, 39t adipose tissue in, 38–40anorexia nervosa and, 40–41 death vs. survival, 39–40
fuel usage during, 725t
glucose levels and metabolism in, 38, 39, 568f, 578, 579t, 583, 583f, 584, 584f ketone bodies in, 583, 623, 724–726
liver in, 38
protein synthesis in, 38
skeletal muscle metabolism in, 941–942 Prolyl 3-hydroxylase 1 (PH3-1), 993 Prometheus, 236, 237
Promoter(s), 251, 251f, 252–257, 255f, 294 eukaryotic, 255–257, 256f, 308–309, 309f for mRNA, 255–257, 256f
prokaryotic, 255–257, 256f for tRNA, 264, 264f
Promoter-proximal elements, 251, 253, 255, 256f, 294 Promoter region of gene, 254–257, 255, 255f, 256f Proofreading, DNA, DNA polymerases in, 238 Proopiomelanocortin (POMC), 965
Propionyl coenzyme A (propionyl-CoA), 571, 607, 616–617, 616f amino acid degradation to, 771f, 779–781, 779f, 780f conversion to methylmalonyl-CoA, 571, 616, 779, 779f Propionate, for gluconeogenesis, 571–572
Propionyl group, 63 Propranolol, 963, 973
Proprotein convertase subtilisin-like kexin type 9 (PCSK9), 689 Prostacyclin (PGI2), 195, 195f, 640, 643, 644t, 903 Prostaglandin(s), 70, 194–195, 638–647
functions of, 644t inactivation of, 645 inhibition of, 644–645 measuring levels of, 641 nomenclature for, 640 structures of, 640, 642f, 643f
synthesis of, 638, 640–645, 642f, 644f Prostaglandin analogs, 647 Prostaglandin E2, 640
Prostaglandin I2 (prostacyclin), 195, 195f, 640, 643, 644t, 903 Prostaglandin receptors, 646, 646t
Prostaglandin synthases, 643, 644f Prosthetic groups, 110, 135 Protease(s), 161, 738
in coagulation, 161, 895, 897–904, 898f ly
sosomal, 179, 738
MMPs, 743t, 928, 978, 990
in protein digestion, 25, 179, 738, 739–741, 739f, 740f, 741f in protein turnover, 743, 743t
Protease inhibitors (PIs), 268, 269, 895, 903 Proteasome, 743t, 745, 745f
Protein(s), 6. See also specific types adhesion, 844, 978, 989–990
binding sites of, 83, 100, 101, 102 as buffer, 55
conformation of, 101–102, 105, 116–121 databases of, 95–96
degradation of, 738, 743–745 (See also Protein turnover)developmental variations in,