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.pdfMitochondrial integrity pathway, to apoptosis, 358, 358f, 499 Mitochondrial mRNA, 277
Mitochondrial myopathy, encephalomyopathy, lactic acidosis, and strokelike episodes (MELAS), 491t
Mitochondrial permeability transition pore, 410f, 481, 497–498, 498f Mitochondrial ribosomes, 224
Mitochondrial trifunctional protein, 611t, 626 Mitochondrial trifunctional protein deficiency, 626, 628t Mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase, 198–199, 199f, 816 oncogenic, 349–350, 351f
Mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase kinase (MAPKKK), 199 Mitosis, 214, 221Mitotic (M) phase of cell cycle, 230, 236, 236f Mixed triacylglycerols, 71
Moclobemide, 963
Moderately repetitive DNA, 266–267, 266f Modified amino acids, 81, 91–94, 274, 284–285 Modulator protein, 150, 160
MODY, maturity-onset, 153 Molecular biology, 211–212 of cancer, 344–365 ethical dilemmas in, 212
Moles (nevi), 346. See also Melanoma Molybdenum, 15
2-Monoacylglycerol, 594 Monoacylglycerols, 25–26, 70–71 Monoamine oxidase, 508, 965
Monoamine oxidase (MAO), 962, 962f, 963 Monoamine oxidase inhibitors, 508, 519, 963 tyramine poisoning with, 963, 975t Monocytes, 870t, 871
Monomeric G-proteins, 150, 160–161, 161f Mononuclear leukocytes, 871 Monooxygenases, 407f, 408 Monosaccharides, 5, 24, 25, 66, 66f oxidized and reduced, 68–69, 69f
ring structures of, 67, 68f stereoisomers of, 66–67 structure of, 66–69
Monounsaturated fatty acids, 69–70, 71f, 609 Motifs, 105
Motif ten element (MTE), 255 Motilin, 860
Motor proteins, 183, 399 Motrin (ibuprofen), 645
M phase of cell cycle, 230, 236, 236f M protein, 114
mRNA. See Messenger RNA
MspI restriction enzyme, 321t
MstII restriction enzyme, 321t, 322, 330, 335
mTOR (mammalian target of rapamycin), 730, 731f, 744, 744f, 837–838 Mucilages, 424, 424t
Mucin, salivary, 556, 556f Mucopolysaccharides. See Glycosaminoglycans
Mucopolysaccharidoses, 954, 978, 986, 988, 989t, 994t Multimer, 108
Multiple endocrine neoplasia (MEN), 361 Multiple endocrine neoplasia (MEN) type 1, 728 Multiple sclerosis, 334, 973–974, 975t Multisubstrate reactions, 154
Muscarinic acetylcholine receptors, 193, 203 Muscle, 844, 932–949. See also specific types Muscle cells, 932–935
cardiac, 934f, 935
skeletal muscle, 933–934, 934f smooth muscle, 934–935, 934f
Muscle contraction, 935–936
energy (ATP) for, 399, 399f, 936, 937f
sliding filament system in, 932, 936, 937fsmooth muscle, eicosanoids in, 638 Muscle fatigue, 943
Muscle fibers, 449, 844, 932–934, 934t, 942
Muscle glycogen phosphorylase, 158–159, 159f, 160, 526, 531t, 538 Muscle metabolism
amino acid, 36, 37, 751, 752f, 755–757, 823, 830–832
conversion of branched-chain amino acids to glutamine, 830–832, 831f fasting state, 825–827, 826f
after high-protein meal, 835–836, 835f in hypercatabolic states, 836
oxidation of branched-chain amino acids, 823, 825, 827, 830, 831f, 941, 947 fatty acid oxidation in, 624, 726, 932, 938, 938f, 946–947, 946f
fuel use in
cardiac muscle, 624, 939
skeletal muscle, 624, 726, 939–948
glucose, 28, 28f, 580, 580f, 582f, 726, 942–945 AMP activation in, 942–943, 943f
in glycolysis/anaerobic glycolysis, 444, 938, 939, 942–945 in type IIb fast-twitch fibers, 942
glucose transport in, 428, 428f, 932
glycogen, 525–527, 527f, 532, 532t, 537–538, 537f, 726, 942–943 ATP availability and, 537
calcium and, 526, 532, 538 diabetes mellitus and, 535
epinephrine and, 526, 532, 853, 854f training and, 947–948
Muscular dystrophy Becker, 174, 934 congenital, 984
Duchenne, 174, 648, 934, 949t Mushroom poisoning, 252, 268, 271t Mutagens
action of, 240, 240f definition of, 240 Mutarotases, 67 Mutarotation, 67, 68f Mutases, 146 Mutations, 80, 211, 230
cancer-causing, 212, 344, 345–349 gain-of-function, 344, 347–348, 348f, 349, 360 lo
ss-of-function, 344 multiple, 344, 360–361 repair enzyme, 348–349
deletion, 277t, 278, 301, 303, 330 detection of, 330–333
by allele-specific oligonucleotide probes, 330 by polymerase chain reaction, 330–331
DNA repair disorders and, 247, 348–349 frameshift, 278, 278f
insertion, 277t, 278, 330 missense, 277t, 278 nonsense, 277t, 279 point, 89, 277t, 278, 330
protein synthesis affected by, 277–278 silent, 277t, 278
types of, 277t
Myasthenia gravis, 191, 193, 206–207, 208tMycobacterium tuberculosis, 252, 260, 268 myc transcription factor/oncogene, 349, 350–351, 351f, 355, 356, 356f
Myelin, 971–972, 972t
Myelin basic proteins (MBPs), 972
Myelin disorders (demyelinating diseases), 973–974 Myelin lipids, 971–972
Myelin sheath, 953–954, 971–972
formation by oligodendrocytes, 955–956, 971 formation by Schwann cells, 956, 971, 971f Myelin structural protein, 972
Myeloid leukemia, 883 Myeloperoxidase, 505, 513f, 514
Myocardial infarction (MI), 81, 91, 95, 97t, 101, 122, 125t angina in, 81, 101
aspirin (NSAID) therapy for preventing, 643, 659, 663t atherosclerosis and, 689
bioenergetics in, 375, 395, 410 blood formation in, 844
cardiac enzymes in, 81, 91, 95, 101, 116, 122 cell death in, 410
glycolysis in, 450
heart failure after, 395, 409 hypoxia in, 410, 481
ischemia in, 481, 487, 498–499, 500t
ischemia–reperfusion injury in, 499, 505, 508, 509, 519–520, 522t myoglobin levels in, 111
radical damage in, 507, 514 radioimmunoassay in, 116
thrombolytic therapy for, 481, 498–499, 904
Myoclonic epilepsy and ragged red fiber disease (MERRF), 491t, 492 Myofibrils, 934
Myoglobin, 100, 874
hemoglobin as paralog of, 89, 90f measuring levels of, 933
oxygen saturation curve for, 110, 110f release from damaged muscle, 111, 833 structure–function relationships in, 109–114 structure of, 109, 110f
Myoglobinuria, 111
Myokinase, 943, 943f
Myosin, in muscle contraction, 932, 936, 937f Myosin ATPase, 399, 399f
MyPlate, 16–17, 18 Myristoylation, 92, 93f NNAcetylcysteine, 917, 917f
N-Acetylgalactosamine, 556, 558f, 559, 985f, 986 N-Acetylglucosamine, 556, 984–986, 985f N-Acetylglucosamine 6-phosphate, 554, 556f N-Acetylglutamate (NAG), 760, 760f N-Acetylneuraminic acid (NANA), 544, 554–559, 656 N-Acetyl-p-benzoquinoneimine (NAPQI), 916–917, 917f N-Acetyltransferases, 554
NAD+
in ATP–ADP cycle, 394
binding fold for, 105f, 106, 107in cellular respiration, 372–373, 374f as coenzyme, 138–139, 138f, 144
in electron-transport chain, 394
in ethanol metabolism, 139, 151, 156, 702, 708–711 in glycolysis, 437, 438
NADH reoxidation to, 443–444
in oxidation–reduction reactions, 404, 405f, 407 synthesis of, 139
in tricarboxylic acid cycle, 457–458, 459, 461–463 Na+-dependent transporters, 415, 426, 427f, 430 amino acid transport in, 738, 741–742, 741f
NADH
in amino acid oxidation, 375
in anaerobic glycolysis, 434, 443–444 in β-oxidation, 375
electron transfer to O2, 482
in electron-transport chain, 375, 480–481, 482, 487
in ethanol metabolism, 139, 151, 156, 649, 702, 705, 708–711 in fatty acid desaturation, 637–638, 641f
in fatty acid oxidation, 591, 607, 608f β, 613–614, 613f, 617
peroxisomal, 618–620, 923
in fuel oxidation, 403, 404–407 in gluconeogenesis, 571, 571f
in glycolysis, 375, 434, 434f, 438 in hemoglobin synthesis, 869
in ischemic conditions, 939
isocitrate dehydrogenase regulation by, 468–469, 469f in ketone body metabolism, 621, 624, 625f
in lactic acidosis, 492
in oxidation–reduction reactions, 404, 405f, 407 oxidative fate of, 443–444
in oxidative phosphorylation, 480–481, 480f, 482, 488–489 PDC kinase inhibition by, 470–471
in pentose phosphate pathway, 544 product inhibition by, 156
shuttle systems for, 434, 434f, 443–444, 443f, 488–489, 488f in tricarboxylic acid cycle, 457, 457f, 459, 462–463, 468–469 NADH:CoQ oxidoreductase, 482, 484, 485f, 486–487
NADH dehydrogenase, 482, 484, 485f NADH/NAD+ ratio, ethanol and, 708–711 NADPH
in cholesterol synthesis, 669, 672, 673 in ethanol metabolism, 704–706
in fatty acid synthesis, 543, 548–550, 631, 635–637, 635f in fatty acid ω-oxidation, 620
in fuel oxidation, 395, 403 functions of, 543, 548–549
generation in pentose phosphate pathway, 371, 371f, 543, 543f, 545–546, 545f, 548– 550, 920–921
in glutathione defense system, 543, 548–549, 549f hepatic demand for, 920–921
in insulin release, 383, 661
in oxidation–reduction reactions, 405f, 407 pathways requiring, 549t
and red blood cells, 548–549, 549f, 843, 869
NADPH oxidase, 504, 505, 513–514, 513fNa+-glucose transporter, 177, 178f Na+–K+–ATPase pump, 177, 177f, 394, 399, 426, 742, 860
NAPQI (N-acetyl-p-benzoquinoneimine), 916–917, 917f Naproxen, 645
Nascent chylomicrons, 594, 600, 600f Nascent high-density lipoprotein, 681, 683f National Library of Medicine, 95–96
Native conformation, 101, 116–117 Natural killer (NK) cells, 871, 881f Necrosis, 410
Negative (acidic) amino acids, 80, 84f, 85t, 86–88 Negative control, 294, 297
Negative nitrogen balance, 823, 823f, 827, 836–838 Neonatal diabetes, 384, 390t
Neonatal hypoglycemia, 526, 532, 536, 538–539, 540t Neonatal jaundice, 553
Neonatal respiratory distress syndrome, 634, 655, 659, 663t Neoplasms, 214. See also Tumor(s)
Nernst equation, 406 Nervous system, 844, 953–975
amino acid metabolism in, 834, 834f cells of, 953, 954–956
chemical messengers in, 190, 194 (See also Neurotransmitters) glucose metabolism in, 27–28, 953
lipid synthesis in, 844, 970–972 Network-forming collagen, 980, 982
Neural tube defects, 791, 800–803, 803t Neuroblastoma, 348
Neurocrine signaling, 193 Neurodegenerative diseases, 504, 953 Neurofibromatosis, 355 Neurofibromin, 355
Neuroglia (glial cells), 953, 954–956 Neuroglycopenia, 381, 383, 579, 584–585 Neuromuscular junction, 935–936, 935f ACh and ACh receptors at, 192–193, 192f myasthenia gravis and, 206–207 Neuron(s), 954–955
apoptosis of, 955
glucose transport to, 428, 429f, 957 neurotransmitter synthesis and release, 958 structure of, 955, 955f
Neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS), 511 Neuropathy
autonomic, 991
cofactor deficiencies in, 844 metabolic, 968–970
peripheral, in diabetes mellitus, 441, 844 Neuropeptides, 194, 844, 953, 958 Neuropeptide Y, 860, 861t
Neurotensin (NT), 861t
Neurotransmitters, 190, 192, 194, 388, 844, 953, 958–959. See also specific neurotransmitters
action of, 958–959, 959f amino acid, 834
amino acid metabolism to, 834, 844
common features of, 958, 959tglucose as precursor of, 27–28, 38 small nitrogen-containing, 194, 194f, 953, 958–968
synthesis of, 844, 953, 958 Neutral pH, 51 Neutrophils, 871
inflammatory response of, 895 normal values of, 870t phagocytosis by, 180, 871 production of, 881f
purine synthesis in, 811 staining properties of, 871
Nevi (moles), 346. See also Melanoma Next-generation DNA sequencing, 326–327, 326f
N10-formyltetrahydrofolate, in purine synthesis, 806, 806f, 807f NGA (99Tcm-galactosyl-neoglycoalbumin), 914
N-glycosidic bonds, 69, 70f Niacin
deficiency of, 746, 782 dietary requirement (RDA), 14t hepatic synthesis of, 919t
as lipid-lowering agent, 659, 696t NAD+ synthesis from, 139 structure of, 73, 74f
in tricarboxylic acid cycle, 459 Niacin deficiency, 14t, 474
Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide. See NAD+; NADH Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate. See NADPH Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor, 192–193, 193f, 203 Nicotinic acid. See Niacin
Niemann–Pick C1-like 1 protein (NPC1L1), 669 Niemann–Pick disease, 559t
Nirenberg, Marshall, 275–276
Nitric oxide, 505, 507, 507t, 511–513, 968 in hepatic fibrosis, 714, 714f
as neurotransmitter, 958, 968
in phagocytosis and inflammation, 513–514, 513f receptors for, 207
as retrograde messenger, 968, 968f synthesis of, 968
toxicity of, 512–513 direct toxic effects, 512 RNOS toxicity, 512–513
in vasodilation, 968, 968f
Nitric oxide synthase, 511, 511f, 968 endothelial, 511, 968
inducible, 505, 511 neuronal, 511
Nitrocellulose paper, blotting onto, 319, 324, 324f, 325f Nitrogen
amino acid, fate of, 751, 753–757
conversion to urea, 34, 36, 37, 38, 751, 757–765 (See also Urea cycle) disorders of, 761–764
fasting state, 760–761, 761f, 825–828
in glucose–alanine cycle, 756–757, 756f, 832, 832f glutamate and, 753–756, 753f, 754f, 755f, 756f
in kidney, 751, 752f, 828–829, 828fprinciples governing interorgan flux, 827–828 removal as ammonia, 34, 753–755, 754f
transamination reactions, 753, 753f transport to liver, 751, 756–757, 756f, 823 functional groups, 62
hepatic products, 918, 919t partial charge of, 65
Nitrogen balance, 12–13, 12t, 757 negative, 823, 823f, 827, 836–838
Nitrogen-containing compounds, 24, 29, 62, 72–74. See also specific types amino acids as precursors of, 73
charge of, 64, 65f
ring structures of, 62, 73–74 tautomers of, 74, 74f
Nitrogen-containing neurotransmitters, small, 194, 194f, 953, 958–968 Nitrogen dioxide, 74–75, 505, 512f
Nitrogenous bases, 73–74, 213 DNA, 213, 215–218, 215f, 215t free, 806, 811, 812f methylation of, 294
pairing of, 213, 214, 216–218, 217f, 223 DNA, 213, 214, 216–218, 217f
in DNA replication, 216–218, 233–234 mismatched, 242–243, 243f
RNA, 223 rRNA, 213, 225
in transcription, 216–218, 251, 252, 275 in translation, 216–218, 274, 275
purine, 73, 74f, 806–811, 817. See also Purine(s) pyrimidine, 73, 74f, 806, 813–817. See also Pyrimidine(s) RNA, 213, 223, 223f
salvage of, 806, 807, 811, 812f, 813–816, 815f synthesis of, 806–816, 918
Nitroglycerin, 481, 511
Nitroguanosine, 512–513 Nitroimidazole amoebicide, 914 Nitroprusside, 63, 75, 489 Nitrosamines, 347, 347f Nitrosative stress, 513 Nitrosylation, 513 Nitrotyrosine, 512–513
N-linked glycoproteins, 920, 920f N5,N10-methylene-FH4, 794, 795t N-myc oncogene, 347–348 Nomenclature
biochemical, 45 enzyme, 128, 144
enzyme, in glycogen metabolism, 533 fatty acid, 69
functional group, 63, 65 heptahelical receptor, 203 nitrogen-containing compounds, 73 nucleic acid, 275
prefixes and suffixes for clinical conditions, 375 prostaglandin, 640
protein, 275Nomogram, BMI, 12f
Noncompetitive inhibitors, 150, 154–155, 155f, 156f Nonessential amino acids, 769, 770f
Nonesterified fatty acids (NEFA), 660–662, 925, 927 Nonhistone chromosomal proteins, 221
Non-Hodgkin lymphoma, 295, 313, 315t doxorubicin toxicity in, 482 HIV-related, 362
interferon therapy for, 308 methotrexate for, 303, 795, 796 miRNA expression in, 313
R-CHOP chemotherapy for, 295, 313, 819
Nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NNRTI), 268, 269 Nonoverlapping nature, of genetic code, 277
Nonpolar aliphatic amino acids, 83–85 Nonpolar hydrophobic amino acids, 80 Nonreducing ends, of glycogen, 527, 529, 529f Nonrepetitive secondary structures, 104, 104f Nonsense codons, 276
Nonsense mutations, 277t, 278 in β-thalassemia, 278, 279, 288t
Nonshivering thermogenesis, 494–496, 495f
Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), 645, 645f, 663t Nontemplate strand, of DNA, 254, 254f
Nonthrombogenic surface, 903 Norepinephrine, 194, 846t, 853–854
counterregulation by, 380, 381f, 845, 846t, 853 as hormone, 388
inactivation and degradation of, 961–963, 962f in metabolic homeostasis, 380
metabolism and inactivation of, 854
as neurotransmitter, 388, 853, 953, 958, 959–963 in nonshivering thermogenesis, 495, 495f physiologic effects of, 853
receptors for, 388 release of, 853, 961
signal transduction in, 388 storage of, 961, 961f structure of, 388f
synthesis of, 834, 853, 959–961, 960f thyroid hormone and, 859
tumor secreting, 853 Normochromic anemia, 872, 872t Normocytic anemia, 872, 872t Northern blots, 324, 325f NotI restriction enzyme, 321t
Nuclear-encoded proteins, import into mitochondrial matrix, 475, 475f Nuclear envelope, 170f, 181, 181f
Nuclear localization signal, 181 Nuclear pores, 170f, 181, 181f Nuclear receptors, 304
Nucleic acid(s). See also DNA; RNA databases of, 95–96
structure of, 213–227 synthesis of, 806
Nucleic acid alphabet, 275
Nucleoid, 185Nucleolus, 170f, 181, 181f Nucleoside(s), 62, 69, 73–74, 215–216, 215t, 216f
Nucleoside/nucleotide reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs), 234, 268, 269, 326 Nucleosome(s), 221, 222f
Nucleosome cores, 221, 222f Nucleotide(s), 62, 69, 73–74, 80, 213 degradation of bases, 807, 817, 818, 818f DNA, 213, 215–216, 216f
functions of, 806
glycoprotein/glycolipid synthesis from, 544, 554, 554t, 556f interconversion of sugars, 543f, 544, 550–554, 555f
purine cycle of, 806, 811, 813f, 830–832, 832f, 947 RNA, 213, 223, 223f
synthesis of bases, 806–816, 918
in de novo pathway, 806, 807–811, 807f, 813, 814f, 816 in pentose phosphate pathway, 543, 543f
regulation of, 806, 810–811, 816
in salvage pathway, 806, 807, 811, 813–816, 815f tRNA, 225
Nucleotide binding fold, 100, 105f, 106, 107 Nucleotide excision repair (NER), 241, 242f Nucleus of cell, 169, 170f, 181, 181f Nuprin (ibuprofen), 645
Nutrients, 3, 11–16. See also specific nutrients AI, 11, 19
conditionally essential, 11, 12 DRI, 19
essential, 3, 11–12 RDA, 11, 19
Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL), 13, 14t–15t, 19–20 Nutrition
dietary fuels in, 4–7 dietary guidelines in, 16–18
dietary requirements in, 3, 11–16
Nutritional anemias, 883. See also specific types OO
besity, 20t, 395, 409, 436 anthropometric measures of, 30–31 BMI in, 10, 658
body shape/fat pattern in, 30–31
central, in Cushing disease or syndrome, 858 ethanol intake and, 703, 711, 715t
exercise for la
ctate production in, 449, 454t
TCA cycle and, 458, 459, 462, 463, 467, 473
fatty acid metabolism in, 608, 609, 617, 624–625, 628t le
ptin in, 656–657
metabolic syndrome and, 30, 660–662 weight gain in, 634, 658, 663t Octanoic acid, 69
Octreotide, 849
Odd-chain-length fatty acids, 607, 609 oxidation of, 616–617, 616f O-glycosidic bonds, 69, 70f
Okazaki fragments, 230, 234, 235f, 238
Oleate, 6f, 609, 616Oleic acid, 69–70, 71f, 638, 922 Olestra, 600
Oligodendrocytes, 953, 955–956, 971 Oligomer, 108
Oligonucleotide probes, 330, 332 Oligonucleotides, 225
machine synthesis of, 322
Oligosaccharides, 25, 62 glycoprotein, 544 structure of, 69, 544
O-linked glycoproteins, 920, 920f ω-carbon, 69–70, 71f
ω-fatty acids, 638
ω-oxidation, of fatty acids, 607, 620–621, 620f Oncogenes, 344, 346, 349–353
apoptosis regulators, 350t, 360 and cell cycle, 350t, 351–353, 352f classes of, 348, 349t
growth factors and growth-factor receptors, 349, 350t, 351f hormone receptors, 350t
integration into host genome, 348 mechanism of activation, 349t microRNAs as, 349
proto-oncogene conversion to, 347–348, 348f and signal transduction cascades, 349–351
signal transduction proteins, 349–350, 350t, 351f transcription factors, 350–351, 350t
tumors associated with, 349t One-carbon pool, 790, 790f, 793–796 choline and, 795t, 801, 801f hepatic synthesis of donors, 919t
oxidation and reduction in, 793–794, 793f recipients in, 790, 790f, 794–796, 795f, 795t sources in, 790, 790f, 794, 794f, 795t tetrahydrofolate, 790, 790f, 793–796, 793f Open cycle, 471
Operator, 256, 297, 297f Operons, 256, 256f, 258, 267t corepressors of, 297, 298f inducible, 297, 298f
lac, 297, 298, 298f, 299f
in prokaryotic gene expression, 294, 296–300, 296f–298f repressors of, 296–297, 297f
trp, 297, 300, 300f Opportunistic infections, 225
Organelles, 169, 170–184, 170f. See also specific organelles Organic acids, 51
Organic molecules bond polarity in, 65
carbon structure of, 63
functional groups of, 62, 63–65, 64f reactivity of, 65, 66f
solubility of, 65, 66f structure of, 62
Organic radicals, 507, 507t Organification of iodide, 857
Organophosphorus insecticides, 129, 129f, 140, 143, 143fOrientation, in catalysis, 136
Origin of replication, 231, 232f, 236, 237f Orlistat, 601
Ornithine, 759
in cystinuria, 743 synthesis of, 776, 778
in urea cycle, 751, 757–759, 757f, 759 Ornithine aminotransferase, 759, 759f, 778 Ornithine transcarbamoylase (OTC), 759
Ornithine transcarbamoylase deficiency, 212, 759, 762, 766t, 817 Orotate monophosphate (OMP), 806
Orotate phosphoribosyltransferase, 813
Orotic acid (orotate), 759, 813, 814f, 816, 817 Orotic aciduria, hereditary, 816, 820t Orotidylic acid decarboxylase, 813
Osmolality, 50
Osmotic diuresis, 50, 56, 57, 570, 626 Osmotic pressure, 50
cartilage, 987
plasma proteins and, 893, 894, 919 Osteoarthritis, 986
Osteogenesis imperfecta (OI), 982, 992–993 Osteomalacia, 15, 20t
Osteopenia, 772
Osteoporosis, 15, 20t, 429, 772, 785, 870 Outer leaflet, of plasma membrane, 171–172 Outer mitochondrial membrane, 180, 180f Overweight, 10
Oxalate, 774, 774f Oxaloacetate
amino acid degradation to, 776
amino acid synthesis from, 770f, 776, 778, 778f anaplerotic pathways for, 472, 472f, 972 aspartate interconversion with, 573, 573f citrate synthase regulation by, 468, 468f conversion to PEP, 573, 573f
in fatty acid synthesis, 635, 635f
in gluconeogenesis, 572–573, 572f, 575–576, 725f in malate–aspartate shuttle, 488–489, 488f malate interconversion with, 573, 573f precursors of, 469
pyruvate conversion to, 572–573, 572f, 573f, 721 succinate oxidation to, 460f, 461
in tricarboxylic acid cycle, 458, 459, 460f, 461, 468, 469, 472 in urea cycle, 759, 759f
Oxaluria, primary type 1, 787t
Oxidases, 144, 407, 407f. See also specific types in cancer, 520–521
radicals from, 508
Oxidation, 64. See also specific processes
Oxidation, fuel, 1, 2f, 3, 4–5, 369–375. See also specific fuels and pathways ATP generation in, 4–5, 4f, 403–407
bacterial, 185–186
cellular respiration for, 372–374, 374f energy from, 394, 403–407
enzyme regulation in, 151–162
exergonic nature of, 394fasting state, 34 fed state, 24, 24f
mitochondrial, 169
oxidative phosphorylation for, 403–407, 406f problems in, pathologic consequences of, 375 thermogenesis in, 403
Oxidation–reduction reactions, 64, 404–407 caloric value of fuels and, 406–407 coenzymes in, 134, 136–139, 404 electron-transport chain, 484–486, 485f coenzyme Q in, 485, 485f
copper and reduction of oxygen in, 485f, 486 cytochromes in, 482, 485–486, 485f
NADH:CoQ oxidoreductase in, 484, 485f
succinate dehydrogenase and other flavoproteins in, 484, 485f FAD reduction in, 404, 405f
Gibbs free energy change in, 405–406 NADPH in, 403, 407
NAD+ reduction in, 404, 405f
one-carbon groups of tetrahydrofolate, 793–794, 793f reduction potential in, 394, 405–406, 406t
Oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS), 5, 394–395, 403–407, 404f, 435, 480–500, 480f ATP synthase in, 480, 483–484
chemiosmotic hypothesis of, 480, 480f, 482