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.pdfDuodenum, digestive enzymes in, 421 Dyneins, 183
Dystrophin, 174, 648, 934 EE
2F transcription factors, 352, 352f Early endosomes, 179
Eating disorder. See Anorexia nervosa E-cadherin, 356
EcoRI restriction enzyme, 322f Ectopic ACTH syndrome, 864 Edema, 894, 918
Editing, gene, 340 Editing, RNA, 311, 311f Edrophonium chloride, 193 Efavirenz, 268, 269
Egg cells, 221 Ehlers-Danlos syndrome, 986
Eicosanoid(s), 11, 62, 70, 190, 194–195, 591 autocrine action of, 646–647
in blood pressure regulation, 638
in bronchoconstriction/bronchodilation, 638 functions of, 638–640
in inflammatory response, 638 mechanism of action, 646–647 paracrine action of, 646
in smooth muscle contraction, 638, 646
synthesis of, 194–195, 591, 591f, 632, 638–647, 642f
arachidonic acid as precursor of, 70, 194–195, 632, 638, 640, 642f pathways of, 640, 642f
types of, 638
Eicosanoid receptors, 646, 646t Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), 11, 638 18S rRNA, 224, 261–263, 263f
80S ribosome, 224, 263fEjection (E) site, on ribosome, 280, 280f Elastase, 25, 738, 739f, 740–741, 740f, 741f
Elastic fibers, 978f, 983–984 Elastic lamina, internal, 687, 688f Elastin, 844, 978, 983–984
DNA structure of, 983, 984f elastic properties of, 983–984 synthesis of, 983
Electrochemical potential gradient, 480, 480f, 483, 483f Electrolytes, 13, 49. See also specific electrolytes distribution in body fluids, 49, 50t
plasma, 894 Electromyogram, 482 Electron(s) antibonding, 506
donation, in fuel oxidation, 394–395 oxidation and reduction, 64, 404–407 spin restriction of, 506 Electronegativity, 65
Electron-transfer flavoprotein-CoQ oxidoreductase (ETF-QO), 614, 614f Electron-transport chain (ETC), 5, 369–375, 394, 480–490, 480f
ATP synthase in, 480, 483–484 ATP synthesis coupled to, 493–496
ATP synthesis uncoupling from, 481, 493, 494–496 chemical uncouplers in, 494, 495f
proton leak in, 481, 494, 496 uncoupling proteins in, 494–496, 495f in β-oxidation of fatty acids, 614, 614f coenzyme Q in, 482, 485–487, 485f
copper and reduction of oxygen in, 485f, 486 cytochromes in, 481, 482, 485–487, 485f disorders of, 481, 490–493
electrochemical potential gradient in, 480, 480f, 483, 483f electron transfer from NADH to O2 in, 482
energy yield from, 487 inhibition of, 489, 490t
NADH:CoQ oxidoreductase in, 482, 484, 485f, 486–487 oxidative–reduction components of, 484–486, 485f protein complexes of, 480, 480f
proton pumping in, 480–481, 486–487, 487f Q cycle in, 486–487, 487f
regulation of, 374, 481, 494, 494f sequential transfer in, 485f, 489
succinate dehydrogenase and other flavoproteins in, 484, 485f superoxide generation in, 507, 508f
Electrophiles, 139 Electrophoresis, 88, 90
of creatine kinase, 91, 95, 95f gel, 319, 323, 324f Electrophoretic separation, 81
Electrostatic (ionic) bonds, amino acid, 80 Elements, of promoter, 253, 255
Elephant Man (movie), 355 Elongation
fatty acid, 637, 640f
protein, in translation, 274, 279, 282–284, 282f, 283f
Elongation factors, 281, 282–283, 282f, 730Emulsification, 25, 594, 596 Enantiomers, 67
Encephalopathy
hepatic, 757, 760, 764, 766t hypoglycemic, 969
hypoxic, 969 metabolic, 968–970 portal–systemic, 760
transmissible spongiform, 120 Endergonic reactions, 394, 398
Endocrine hormones, 26, 193, 194. See also Hormone(s)
Endocrine system, chemical messengers in, 190, 193, 194, 194f. See also Hormone(s) Endocytosis, 174
of cholera toxin, 175
of chylomicrons, 592, 601–602 receptor-mediated, 178, 179–180
of cholesterol/lipoproteins, 178, 684–685, 684f of iron, 876
Endoglycosidase(s), 419, 988 Endonucleases, restriction, 321–322 Endopeptidases, 740, 741f Endoplasmic reticulum, 169, 181–182 collagen synthesis in, 982–983, 983t
fatty acid desaturation on, 637–638, 641f glycoproteins on, 556–558
microsomal processes in, 182
proteoglycan synthesis in, 978, 986–987, 987f rough, 170f, 181, 182, 182f
chylomicron assembly in, 599, 602–603 collagen synthesis in, 982–983, 983t elastin synthesis in, 983
glucagon synthesis on, 384 insulin synthesis on, 382 lipoproteins on, 599
protein synthesis on, 274, 285–287, 285f smooth, 170f, 181, 182f
Endosomes, 179–180, 910 early, 179
recycling, 179 Endostatin-forming collagen, 980 Endostatins, 980
Endothelial cells
blood–brain barrier, 956–957, 956f hepatic, 911f, 912
Endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS), 511, 968 Endothelium, vascular, thromboresistance of, 903 Endothermic reactions, 397–398
End-stage renal disease, 991–992 Energy
ATP as currency of, 376, 394, 395
ATP hydrolysis for, 394, 396, 396f, 402–403 available for work, 395–398
from fuel oxidation, 394, 403–407 Gibbs free, 374, 394–398, 398t, 400–402 reactions releasing, 397–398
reactions requiring, 397–398 transformation to heat, 394units of, 5 Energy balance, 408–409
ATP homeostasis in, 394, 403, 408, 434–435 oxygen consumption in, 408, 408f
Energy expenditure, 408–409, 408f calculations of, 9
daily, 8–11 resting, 8, 408
Energy transformation, 369, 394–411. See also specific processes in ATP–ADP cycle, 4, 4f, 394–409
for biochemical work, 394, 400–403
activated intermediates with high-energy bonds in, 402–403, 403f additive values of Gibbs free energy changes in, 400–401 anabolic pathway of, 400
substrate and product concentrations in, 401–402 to heat, 394, 403
for mechanical work, 394, 399, 399f
in oxidative phosphorylation, 403–407, 404f for transport work, 394, 399–400 Enhancers, 251, 253, 294
Enoyl-coenzyme A (enoyl-CoA), 614 Entamoeba histolytica, 913, 914, 929t Enteral feeding, 452
Enterohepatic circulation, 594, 676–678, 913 Enterokinase (enteropeptidase), 740 Enteropeptidase, 740
Enthalpy, 398
Entropy, 396–397
Environmental toxins, chlorinated aromatic hydrocarbons, 75–76 Enzyme(s), 8, 25, 128–147, 719
active site of, 128, 129–130, 130f allosteric, 150, 156–158 allosteric site of, 156, 157 basic reactions of, 144–145
brush border, 25
catalytic power of, 128, 128f, 129 catalytic rate constant of, 164–165 catalytic strategies of, 128, 133–134 classes of, 144–145
compartmentation of, 150, 151, 163–164, 474–475
conformational changes in, 130, 130f, 131, 131f, 132f, 150, 156–161 covalent modification of, 150, 158–160
databases of, 95–96
degradation of, regulated, 161–162 dietary deficiencies and, 134 digestive, 25–26, 415–425 disease-causing malfunction of, 45 fractional occupancy of, 165 functional groups of, 128, 133–139 hydrolytic, 169
induced-fit model of, 130, 131–132, 131f, 132f inhibitors of, 128, 132–133, 140–143, 150, 154–155 insulin and, 389
isoforms of, 89–91 lo
ck-and-key model of, 130–131 mitochondrial, 180
multisubstrate reactions of, 154nomenclature for, 128, 144 organelle content of, 171
pH and, 128, 139, 140f phosphorylation of, 150, 158–159, 158f product inhibition of, 155, 156 proteolytic, 25, 161, 179, 738 regulation of, 150–166
enzyme concentration (amount) in, 150, 153–154, 161–162 Lineweaver-Burk transformation in, 153, 153f, 155, 156f mechanisms in, categories of, 151
Michaelis-Menten equation in, 150, 152–153, 152f, 165 overview of, 151
protein–protein interactions in, 150, 160–161 saturation kinetics in, 150, 152
velocity and substrate concentration in, 150, 151–154, 152f, 153f, 154f regulatory (rate-limiting), 150, 150f, 162–163
restriction, 319, 321–322, 321f, 321t, 322f reversible inhibition of, 150, 154–155
RNA as, 224 selectivity of, 128
substrate-binding site of, 128 substrates of, 128
synthesis of, regulated, 161 temperature and, 128, 139
Enzyme-catalyzed reaction, 129–133. See also Enzyme(s) activation energy for, 128, 132, 132f
basic steps of, 129 rate in cell, 154
transition state in, 128, 132–133, 132f Enzyme Commission (EC) number, 128, 144
Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), 791, 865 Enzyme replacement therapy, 530, 739, 745–746, 748t Enzyme specificity, 129, 130–132, 130f, 136 Enzyme–substrate complex, 129–130, 130f, 150, 152 Eosinophils, 871
normal values of, 870t production of, 881f staining properties of, 871 Ependymal cells, 953, 956
Epidermal growth-factor receptor, as oncogene, 350t Epidermolysis bullosa, junctional, 984, 994t Epigenetics, 301
Epimer(s), 553 Epimerases, 67, 553, 553f Epimerization, 553, 553f Epimers, 62, 67
Epinephrine, 107, 194, 846t, 853–854 acting at α–receptors, 536, 536f, 853 acting at β-receptors, 536–537, 853 cAMP activation by, 159, 164
counterregulation by, 376, 377f, 380, 381f, 381t, 845, 846t, 853 functions of, 381t
in glucagon regulation, 384 in glucose regulation, 372
in glycogen metabolism, 526, 532, 534f, 535–537, 536f, 853, 854f as hormone, 388
in hypoglycemia, 381inactivation and degradation of, 961–963, 962f in metabolic homeostasis, 378, 378f, 380
metabolism and inactivation of, 854 in muscle metabolism, 932
in neonatal metabolism, 526
as neurotransmitter, 388, 953, 958, 959–963 physiologic effects of, 853
receptors for, 203, 388, 536–537, 853–854 signal transduction in, 388
storage and release of, 961, 961f structure of, 388f
synthesis of, 834, 853, 959–961, 960f tumor secreting, 853
Epivir (lamivudine), 234, 268, 269 Epoxides, 640, 642f
ε-Globin gene, 885–889, 886f Epstein–Barr virus (EBV), 362 Equilibrium, 396
erb-b2 oncogene, 348 Erection, nitric oxide in, 968
Error rate, in DNA replication, 230
Errors, in DNA replication, 212, 230, 234, 240, 344. See also DNA repair Erythrocyte(s), 843, 869, 870, 872–889
buffer system of, 54, 55f cell cycle of, 236
cytoskeleton of, 869, 879, 880f
deficiency or disorders of, 843, 869, 872, 883 (See also Anemia(s)) deformability of, 843
differentiation of, 870 function of, 843, 869, 870, 872
glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase activity in, 874
glucose metabolism in, 28, 34, 36, 575, 578–580, 582f, 843, 872–874 in glycolysis, 444–445, 843, 869, 873–874, 873f
in pentose phosphate pathway, 548–549, 549f, 843, 869, 873f, 874 glucose transport in, 428, 580
la
ctate production by, 575, 578 ly
sis of, 874 mature, 872–874
membrane proteins of, 879–880, 880f metabolism of, 38t, 869, 872–879, 873f mitochondria lacking in, 28, 35, 444–445 normal values of, 870t
plasma membrane of, 173f, 869, 879–880 production of, 436, 843, 881f, 882–883, 883f embryonic, fetal, and neonatal, 885, 886f shape of, 879, 879f
stimulation of, 236 surface area of, 879 zeta-potential of, 837
Erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR), 837 Erythromycin, 275, 283, 289, 289t Erythropoiesis, 436, 843, 881f, 882–883, 883f embryonic, fetal, and neonatal, 885–886, 886f ineffective, 884–885
Erythropoietin, 843, 869, 882–883, 883f Erythropoietin receptor defect, 882, 890t
Erythrose 4-phosphate, 547–548, 547f, 548fEscherichia coli (E. coli) cell of, 296, 296f
chromosome of, 220–221 DNA of, 221, 265, 267t
DNA polymerases of, 232–234, 233f, 233t DNA synthesis in, 231–234
gene expression regulation in, 296–300 genome of, 223, 265
infection and septicemia, 824
lac operon of, 297–299, 298f, 299f metabolism of, 186
RNA polymerase of, 253, 299–300
therapeutic protein production in, 333, 334f transcription in, 253, 255, 296–300
trp operon of, 297, 300, 300f urinary tract infection, 231, 233 E site, on ribosome, 280, 280f Esophageal varices, 918
Essential amino acids, 3, 11, 12, 769 Essential fatty acids, 3, 11, 638 Essential fructosuria, 435, 441, 442
Ester(s), 64f, 65, 66f. See also specific types Esterases, 179, 597
Estimated Average Requirement (EAR), 19 Estradiol, 73f, 691f
Estrogen(s), 196
synthesis of, 689–692, 690t, 691f, 694 Estrogen receptor, zinc fingers of, 306f, 307 Estrone, synthesis of, 691f
Ethambutol, 268
Ethane, from lipid peroxidation, 509 Ethanol
acetate fate in, 705 alcohol use disorder, 151 as “antivitamin,” 134 and ATP generation, 375
Breathalyzer level of, 151
calories/energy yield from, 5t, 7, 407, 707–708 dietary guidelines on, 17–18
and gluconeogenesis, 573
Ethanol-induced hypoglycemia, 568, 584–585, 587t Ethanol metabolism, 702–715
acetaldehyde dehydrogenases in, 702, 703, 705
alcohol dehydrogenase in, 143, 151, 154, 184, 702, 703–705 metal-ion catalysis by, 139, 139f
product inhibition of, 156 substrate concentration for, 154
in alcoholism, 151, 154, 161, 164, 184–185 CYP2E1 in, 702, 706–707, 706f, 915
cytochrome P450 enzymes in, 182, 702, 705–707, 706f drinking history and, 707
energy yield from oxidation, 707–708 gender and, 707
genetic polymorphisms in, 702, 706 genotype and, 707
major route for, 702, 702f, 703, 703f
microsomal ethanol oxidizing system (MEOS) in, 151, 154, 161, 164, 182, 184, 704, 705–707, 705fNADH generation in, 139, 151, 156, 702, 705
oxidation to acetaldehyde, 139, 139f, 143, 151, 154, 184, 702–707 quantity of consumption and, 707
toxic effects of, 143, 702, 708–712 acetaldehyde toxicity, 702, 710–711
alcohol-induced liver disease, 702, 708–714, 926–928 changes in fatty acid metabolism, 702, 708–709, 709f cirrhosis, 702, 703, 708, 712–714, 713t free-radical damage, 702, 710–712, 711f
hepatic fibrosis, 713–714, 713t, 714f, 715t hepatitis, 710, 711f
hyperuricemia, 710
hypoglycemia, 568, 584–585, 587t, 710 increased NADH/NAD+ ratio, 708–711 ketoacidosis, 702, 703, 708, 709–710 la
ctic acidosis, 702, 708, 710
stages of hepatic injury, 713t variations in patterns of, 707 Ether, 64f
Ether glycerolipids, 651, 652–654, 654f
Ether glycerophospholipids, 632, 651, 652–654, 654f Ether lipids, 181
Ethics, in molecular biology, 212 Ethoxy radical, 507
Ethyl group, 63 Euchromatin, 181f, 214, 301 Eukaryotes
cell cycle of, 235–236, 236f cells of, 171
DNA of, 211, 221, 265–267 introns in, 265
repetitive sequences in, 265–267, 266f, 331, 331f DNA synthesis in, 234–240
gene expression regulation in, 294, 301–313 availability of genes for transcription in, 301–303 chromatin remodeling in, 294, 301–302
DNA level, 294, 301–303
DNA methylation in, 294, 301, 302 gene amplification in, 301, 303 gene deletions in, 301, 303
gene rearrangements in, 301, 302–303, 303f
gene regulatory sequences in, 294, 303–304, 304f gene-specific regulatory proteins in, 304–305 histone acetylation in, 294, 302, 302f microRNAs in, 312–313, 312f
mRNA transport and stability in, 313 at multiple levels, 301
multiple regulators of promoters in, 308–309, 309f posttranscriptional processing of RNA in, 294, 310–313 RNA editing in, 311, 311f
transcription level, 294, 303–309 translation in, 311–313
genome of, 221–223 mRNA of, 224, 224f
prokaryotes vs., 171, 265–267, 267t
promoters in, 255–257, 256f, 308–309, 309fribosomes of, 224, 225f RNA polymerases of, 251, 253, 254t, 259
transcription in, 251, 253, 255–257, 256f, 259–265, 294, 301–309 translation in, 279–284, 281t
Eukaryotic elongation factor 2 (eEF-2) kinase, 730
Eukaryotic initiation factors (eIFs), 274, 279–281, 280f, 311, 311f, 389 Evolution, divergent, 89
Excitotoxicity, of glutamate, 953, 969 Excretion, 3
acid, 47, 55–56 bile salt, 667 biliary, 910 hepatic, 910
Exendin-4 (exenatide), 863 Exercise
anaerobic glycolysis in, 942–945 from glycogen, 942–943, 943f
in high-intensity exercise, 944 at onset of exercise, 942
in type IIb fast-twitch glycolytic fibers, 942 blood glucose levels in, 584, 945, 946f
fatty acid as fuel in, 624, 726, 946–947, 946f fatty acid metabolism in, 623, 624–625, 726 ketone body metabolism in, 623
skeletal muscle metabolism in, 942–947 Exergonic reactions, 394, 398
Exocrine pancreas, 419 Exocytosis, 178, 180, 600 Exoglycosidase(s), 420, 988 Exons, 251, 259, 261, 261f, 262f Exon shuffling, 261, 685 Exopeptidases, 741, 741f Exothermic reactions, 397–398
External leaflet, of plasma membrane, 171–172 Extracellular fluid (ECF), 48, 49f electrolytes in, 49, 50t
pH and buffering in, 53–55
Extracellular matrix (ECM), 844, 978–993, 978f cell movement within, 978
cells of, 978, 978f collagen of, 978, 979–983 composition of, 979–988 confining property of, 986 elastin of, 978, 983–984
fibrous proteins of, 978, 979–984 hepatic fibrosis and, 927–928 integrins and, 978, 989
la
minin of, 978, 984
proteoglycans of, 978, 978f, 984–988 subintimal, 687, 688f
Extrinsic pathway of coagulation, 898, 899f Eye, anaerobic glycolysis in, 444, 445 Ezetimibe, 669, 670, 695, 696, 696t
FF
abry disease, 559t, 561
Facilitative diffusion, 169, 174, 175f, 176famino acid transport via, 738, 741, 741f, 742
Facilitative glucose transporters, 415, 426, 427f, 427t F-actin, 183, 184f
Factor I, 899t
Factor II, 899t
Factor III, 899t
Factor IV, 899t
Factor V, 893, 897, 899t, 900
Factor V Leiden, 902, 907t Factor VII, 897, 898, 899t, 900 Factor VIII, 893, 897, 899t, 900 deficiency of, 894
for hemophilia A, 904–905 measuring activity of, 894 recombinant, 319, 334, 905
Factor IX, 897, 898, 899t, 900, 905
Factor X, 893, 897, 898–900, 899t Factor XI, 897, 899t, 900
Factor XIII, 893, 899t, 900 FAD
in amino acid oxidation, 375 in ATP–ADP cycle, 394
in cellular respiration, 372–373, 374f on dihydrolipoyl dehydrogenase, 465–466
in electron-transport chain, 394, 480–481, 482, 487 in fatty acid oxidation, 375, 591, 607, 608f
β, 613–614, 613f, 614f, 617 peroxisomal, 619, 619f, 923 generation, in fuel oxidation, 403 in ketone body metabolism, 624, 625f
in oxidative phosphorylation, 480–481, 480f
in oxidative–reduction reactions, 404, 405f, 406, 407
in tricarboxylic acid cycle, 457–458, 457f, 459, 461–462, 462f, 465–466 FADH, 462, 462f
Familial cancers, 361
Familial combined hyperlipidemia (FCH), 634, 649, 658–659, 663t Familial HDL deficiency, 681
Familial hypercholesterolemia, 686, 687, 689, 695 Familial prion diseases, 121
Familial retinoblastoma, 354, 354f, 361
Familial thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura (TTP), 897 Families of proteins, 89
Fanconi-Bickel syndrome, 531t Farber disease, 559t
Farnesoid X-activated receptor (FXR), 197 Farnesyl pyrophosphate, 672, 672f Fasting glucose levels, 56, 570
Fasting state, 3f, 34–44 adipose tissue in, 37, 38–40
amino acids in, 36, 37, 38, 752f, 825–828, 826f hepatic metabolism of, 826–827, 826f
anorexia nervosa and, 40–41 brief (overnight), 35–37 death vs. survival, 39–40
fats (lipids) in, 34, 36–40, 39f, 566, 582, 593, 593f, 724–726 fatty acid oxidation in, 34, 37, 607, 623
glucagon in, 34, 35–37, 385, 566glucose in, 34–40, 39f, 56, 437, 526, 566, 568f, 570, 578, 579t, 581–582, 584, 584f, 724–726, 725f
glycogen metabolism in, 34–38, 532–533, 532t, 533t, 566, 581, 724–726 ketone bodies in, 34–38, 36f, 37f, 38t, 39f, 582, 623, 724–726 prolonged (starvation) (See Prolonged fasting)
tissue interrelationships in, 582f urea cycle in, 760–761, 761f Fast-oxidative glycolytic fibers, 934
Fast-twitch glycolytic fibers, 449, 844, 932–934, 934t, 942 Fat, body, 6. See also Adipose tissue
anthropometric measures of, 30–31 as fuel, 7, 7t, 24
oxidation of, 6 patterns of, 30–31 Fat, dietary, 594–604
absorption of, 25–26, 597–598
calories/energy yield from, 5t, 394, 406, 407, 595, 609 digestion of, 24, 25–26, 26f, 594–597
fate in fed state, 24, 24f, 720–724 fuel stores from, 7, 24
guidelines on, 17 metabolism of, 591–593 requirements for, 11 transport in blood, 600–603 Fat cells. See Adipocytes Fat-free mass (FFM), 9
Fat-soluble vitamins, 13, 15t, 591 Fat substitute (Olestra), 600 Fatty acid(s), 6, 62, 591 absorption of, 597–598
activation of, 598, 599f, 611t
chain length of, 607, 611t (See also specific lengths) cis-, 70, 71f
desaturation of, 637–638, 641f digestion of, 594, 595–597, 597f essential, 3, 11, 638
fasting state, 34, 37, 38–40, 39f, 607, 724–726 fed state, 24, 24f, 720–724
free, 594, 597, 597f, 946–947, 946f
as fuel, 374–375, 566, 591, 607, 609–612, 922–925 characteristics of, 609–610
for heart, 624, 939
transport and activation of, 610–612
in fuel homeostasis, 623–624 glucagon and, 376
in gluconeogenesis, 566, 571–572 glycerophospholipid synthesis from, 632, 651 hydrogenation of, 70
insulin and, 591, 609, 649, 650f, 720–724, 845 ketone bodies from, 607 (See also Ketone bodies) in liver disease, 924–925, 927
melting point of, 69
in metabolic homeostasis, 378–379
metabolism of, 591, 591f, 720–726, 922–925 (See also Fatty acid oxidation) mobilization of, 376
monounsaturated, 69–70, 71f, 609 nomenclature for, 69
nonesterified, 660–662, 925, 927ω, 638 polyunsaturated, 62, 69–70, 71f, 504, 609 dietary sources of, 638
eicosanoids from, 632, 638 preferential use of, 624 saturated, 17, 71f, 609
sphingolipid synthesis from, 632, 651 storage of, 374, 591
structure of, 62, 69–70, 71f
synthesis of (See Fatty acid synthesis) trans-, 17, 70, 71f
transport of, 610–612, 612f
triacylglycerol release of, 593, 601, 609, 632, 632f, 649–651, 650f triacylglycerol synthesis from, 568, 610, 631f, 632, 647–648 unsaturated, 69–70, 71f, 607, 609
xenobiotics metabolized as, 924, 924f
Fatty acid oxidation, 4–5, 4f, 6, 374–375, 591, 607–621, 922–925 acetylation and, 626–627, 627f
acetyl coenzyme A from, 375, 469, 591, 609, 613 alternative routes of, 607, 618–621
ATP generation in, 591, 607, 624, 946–947, 946f
in β-oxidation, 375, 469, 591, 607, 608f, 613–618, 922–923 as aerobic pathway, 618
chain-length specificity in, 611t, 614, 922 energy yield of, 614, 614f
of long-chain fatty acids, 613–617, 922 of medium-chain fatty acids, 617, 922–923
of odd-chain-length fatty acids, 616–617, 616f overview of, 613f
regulation of, 617–618, 618f of saturated fatty acids, 614 spiral of, 613–614
steps in, 613–614, 613f
of unsaturated fatty acids, 614–616, 615f in brain, 970
capacities of various tissues, 38t chain-length specificity in, 611t, 614, 922 dicarboxylic acid from, 607
ethanol and, 702, 708–709, 709f in fasting state, 34, 37, 607, 623 in heart (cardiac muscle), 939 hydrogen peroxide from, 607
in metabolic syndrome, 660–662
in muscle, 624, 726, 932, 938, 938f, 941–942, 946–947, 946f in ω-oxidation, 607, 620–621, 620f
in peroxisomal oxidation, 607, 618–621, 923 α, 607, 620, 620f
β, 607, 618–620, 619f
of long-chain branched-chain fatty acids, 620, 620f regulation of, 621
of very-long-chain fatty acids, 618–620, 619f, 923