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Conditionally essential nutrients, 11, 12

Conformational changes, in enzyme, 130, 130f, 131, 131f, 132f, 150, 156–161 in allosteric enzymes, 156–158

in covalent modification, 150, 158–160 in protein–protein interactions, 160–161

Conformation of protein, 101–102, 105, 116–121 Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH), 694 Congenital lactase deficiency, 423

Congenital lactic acidosis, 493 Congenital methemoglobinemia, 874, 890t

Congenital muscular dystrophy (CMD), 984Congestive heart failure, 409, 458, 476t Conjugate acid, 51

Conjugate base, 47, 51

Connective tissue, 844, 978. See also Extracellular matrix Connective tissue growth factor (CTGF), 992

Consensus sequences, 255, 256f Constant (C) region, 116, 116f Contact inhibition, 345 Contrainsular hormones, 845 Conversion units, 45, 46t Coomassie stain, 990 Cooperative binding, 101 Cooperativity

allosteric enzyme, 156–157, 157f hemoglobin, 112, 112f, 123–124, 123f positive, 112

Copper

in radical formation, 504, 506–507 and reduction of oxygen, 485f, 486 Corepressors, 297, 298f

Cori cycle, 445, 445f, 586, 586f Corticosteroid(s). See also Glucocorticoid(s) for fetal lung maturation, 659

and hyperglycemia, 568, 571, 585, 587t

inhaled vs. systemic, for asthma, 633–634, 658, 663t Corticosteroid-binding globulin, 895t Corticosterone, 854

Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), 855 Cortisol, 196–197, 196f, 854–856

counterregulation by, 376, 377f, 380, 381f, 381t, 843, 845 in Cushing disease/syndrome, 855, 856, 857, 864

effects of, 855–856 functions of, 381t

glucocorticoid receptor for, 305f, 306 in glucose regulation, 372

in hypercatabolic states, 836

in metabolic homeostasis, 378f, 380 secretion of, 854–855, 854f

signal transduction by, 388

synthesis of, 197, 691f, 692–693, 692f Corynebacterium diphtheriae, 284, 287 Cosmids, 327

Cotransporters, 177

Coumadin (warfarin), 900, 901, 905 Counterregulation, 163, 845

Counterregulatory hormones, 376, 377f, 380, 381f, 381t, 843, 845, 846t. See also specific hormones

neural factors controlling, 864

Coupled transcription–translation, 258, 267t, 296 Covalent catalysis, 133

Covalent inhibitors, 128, 140, 141f Covalent intermediates, 128 Covalent modification

of enzyme, 150, 158–160

of glycogen phosphorylase, 533

of glycogen synthase, 533

of HMG-CoA reductase, 673–674, 674f

COX-1 and COX-2, 643–645, 646tC-peptide, 376, 382, 382f CpG islands, 302

C-reactive protein, 837

Creatine, 919t, 932, 940–941, 940f Creatine kinase

as cardiac marker, 91, 95, 101 electrophoretic separation of, 91, 95, 95f isozymes of, 80–81, 90

Creatine phosphate, 932, 939–941 high-energy bonds of, 403, 403f, 932, 940 synthesis of, 940f, 941

Creatine phosphokinase (CPK), 932 Creatinine, 35, 40, 41, 932, 940f, 941, 948 Creatinine-height index (CHI), 40 Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD), 119–121 Crick, Francis, 216–220, 226, 276

Crime, forensics in, 320, 333, 334, 339 CRISPR/Cas, 340

Cristae, 180, 180f

Critical micelle concentration (CMC), 597 Crossing over, 243

Cross-talk, hormone, 205 c-sis proto-oncogene, 362

Cultures, cancer studies in, 345–346 Curare, 193

Cushing disease, 847, 855, 856, 857, 858, 864, 866t Cushing syndrome, 855, 864, 866t

Cyanide poisoning, 375, 481, 489–490, 500t Cyanoglycosides, 490

Cyanosis, 435, 526

Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) activation of, 159, 164

adrenergic receptors and, 388 cellular effects of, 205

glucagon and, 164, 377, 377f, 386–387, 848 glucose and, 298–299, 299f

in glycogen metabolism, 533–536, 534f, 724, 725f, 943 insulin and, 389

protein kinase A and, 159, 159f, 164, 205, 308, 377, 387 second messenger system, 159, 191, 204–205

structure of, 159f synthesis of, 204–205, 205f

Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) phosphodiesterase, 205, 205f

Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) receptor protein (CRP), 298–299, 299f Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) response element (CRE), 308, 387 Cyclic amino acids, 80

Cyclic-AMP response element-binding protein (CREB), 205 phosphorylation of, 308, 309, 309f, 387, 724

Cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP), 207, 968, 968f Cyclin(s)

in cell cycle, 351–353, 351f, 352f as oncogenes, 350t, 351–353 Cyclin A, 352

Cyclin-activating kinases (CAKs), 352 Cyclin D, 352, 352f, 356 Cyclin-dependent kinases, 344

in cell cycle, 351–353, 351fas oncogenes, 350t, 351–353 Cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors (CKIs), 351–353 Cyclin E, 352

Cyclooxygenase enzymes (COX-1 and COX-2), 643–645, 646t Cyclooxygenase inhibitors, 644–645, 645f, 659

Cyclooxygenase pathway, eicosanoid synthesis in, 640–645, 642f Cyclophilin, 993

Cyclophosphamide, 295

CYP2E1, 702, 706–707, 706f, 915, 917 CYP3A4, 915

Cystathionase, 774, 786t, 787t Cystathionase deficiency, 775 Cystathionine, 774, 775f, 799 Cystathionine β-synthase, 774–775, 775f

Cystathionine β-synthase deficiency, 777, 779, 784–785, 786t, 787t Cystathioninuria, 775, 787t

Cysteine, 12, 84f, 85t, 86, 86f, 95 degradation of, 770–771, 771f, 775–776, 775f

synthesis of, 769, 770f, 772, 773f, 774–776, 775f, 799 Cystic fibrosis, 320, 341t

chloride/chloride channels in, 320, 741 digestion in, 419

DNA sequences/mutations in, 327–328, 332, 333, 338, 339, 341t gene therapy in, 337

pancreatic enzymes in, 739, 745–746, 748t Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection in, 320, 739 sweat test for, 320

Cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR), 175–177, 176f, 191, 320, 337

Cystine, 81, 87, 95, 739

Cystinosis, 776, 787t

Cystinuria, 87, 95, 97t, 739, 742, 743, 746, 776 Cytidine diphosphate (CDP), 652, 652f

in deoxyribonucleotide production, 806, 816–817 regulation of, 806

Cytidine diphosphate (CDP)–choline, 652, 653f Cytidine diphosphate (CDP)–DAG, 652, 653f

Cytidine monophosphate (CMP), 544, 556–559, 652, 652f, 653f Cytidine triphosphate (CTP), 252, 402, 652, 652f, 806, 813, 814f Cytidine triphosphate (CTP) synthetase, 813

Cytochrome(s)

in electron-transport chain, 481, 482, 485–487, 485f heme in, 485, 486f, 874

iron vs., 486, 487

Cytochrome b5, 637–638, 641f, 874 Cytochrome b5 reductase, 874

Cytochrome b–c1 complex, 482, 485–486, 485f, 486, 487f Cytochrome c, 344

in apoptosis, 344, 358, 358f, 499

in electron-transport chain, 482, 485f, 486 Cytochrome oxidase, 407, 481, 482, 485–487, 485f Cytochrome P2Y12 inhibitors, 905–906

Cytochrome P450 enzymes, 181, 914–917 common features of, 916

detoxification reactions of, 916–917, 916f, 917f drug interactions and, 706–707

drugs affecting, 877, 915in eicosanoid metabolism, 640, 642f in ethanol metabolism, 151, 161, 182, 184, 702, 705–707, 706f family and isozymes of, 915–916

in fatty acid oxidation, 620 free radicals from, 504, 508 function of, 915

heme in, 874 induction of, 706–707

reducing equivalents from NADPH, 548–549 in steroid hormone synthesis, 690–695, 691f structure of, 706f

Cytokeratin filament, 184f Cytokine(s), 190, 194, 195, 869 in atherosclerosis, 688–689

in hematopoiesis, 843, 880–883

signaling through JAK/STAT pathway, 201–202, 202f, 882–883, 882f

and stem cells, 314, 880–883 and transcription factors, 308

in trauma and sepsis, 836–838, 838f Cytokine receptors, 201–202, 202f, 881–882 Cytoplasmic dyneins, 183

Cytosine, 215t deamination of, 242, 243

degradation pathway of, 817

in DNA, 213, 215–218, 215f, 217f methylation of, 302

pairing of, 216–218, 217f Cytoskeleton, 169, 182–184 integrin binding to, 978, 989

of red blood cells, 869, 879, 880f Cytosol, 169

citrate transport to, 631

fatty acid synthesis in, 631, 634–638 glycolysis in, 434

Cytosolic acetyl-CoA, 634–637

conversion to malonyl-CoA, 636, 636f, 721–723 glucose conversion to, 635, 635f

DD

AG. See Diacylglycerol

Daily energy expenditure (DEE), 8–11 basal metabolic rate and, 8–9 calculations of, 9, 10

diet-induced thermogenesis and, 10 healthy body weight and, 10 physical activity and, 9–10, 9t weight gain/loss and, 10–11

Databases, nucleic acid, enzyme, and protein, 95–96 Daughter cells, 211

DAXI protein, 648 D-configuration, 82, 82f DDT, 75–76, 76f

Deaminases, 751. See also specific types in base salvage, 806, 811, 812f

Death, telomeres in, 240

Death receptors, in apoptosis, 344, 357, 358f Debranching enzymedeficiency of, 531t, 533, 534 in glycogenolysis, 525, 528, 528f, 529–530 530f Decanoic acid, 69

Decarboxylases, 146. See also specific types Decarboxylating malate dehydrogenase. See Malic enzyme Dedicated protein kinases, 159

Defenses

glutathione system of, 505, 515–516, 516f, 543, 548–549, 549f against oxygen toxicity, 505, 514–519

through compartmentalization, 514 Degenerate nature, of genetic code, 276

Degradation, 719. See also specific processes Degradative pathways, 150

Degranulation, 871

Dehydratases, 146, 751. See also specific types Dehydration, 57

in cholera, 177, 182, 185, 205, 207

Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), 691f, 693, 693f, 694, 695, 696–697 Dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEAS), 693, 694, 696–697 Dehydrogenases, 138. See also specific types

Deletions, 277t, 278, 301, 303, 330 δ-Aminolevulinic acid (δ-ALA), 874–875, 875f, 876f δ-Aminolevulinic acid dehydratase (δ-ALA), 875, 875f

δ-Aminolevulinic acid synthase (δ-ALA synthase), 874–875, 875f, 877 Dementia, acetylcholinesterase inhibitors for, 936

Demyelinating diseases, 973–974

Denaturation DNA, 220

protein, 101, 117, 119–121 gastric, 739–740

nonenzymatic modification in, 119, 120f pH and, 119, 739–740

refolding after, 117 solvent and, 119 temperature and, 119 Dendrite, 955, 955f De novo pathway

of purine synthesis, 806, 807–811, 807f

of pyrimidine synthesis, 806, 813, 814f, 816 Dental caries, 436, 444, 451, 454t Deoxyadenosine, accumulation of, 819 Deoxyadenosine diphosphate (dADP), 817 Deoxycholic acid, 678f

Deoxycytidine diphosphate (dCDP), 816–817 Deoxyguanosine triphosphate (dGTP), 817 Deoxyribonuclease I, 269 Deoxyribonucleic acid. See DNA

Deoxyribonucleoside diphosphate (dNDP), 816, 816f Deoxyribonucleoside triphosphates, 230, 233, 233f Deoxyribose, 68, 69f, 213, 215, 215f

ribose reduction to, 806, 816–817, 816f Deoxysugar, 68, 69f

Deoxythymidine monophosphate (dTMP), 817 folate deficiency and, 801

as one-carbon-group recipient, 790f, 795, 795t synthesis of, 806, 817

Deoxythymidine triphosphate (dTTP), 817Deoxyuridine diphosphate (dUDP), 816–817 Deoxyuridine monophosphate (dUMP)

folate deficiency and, 801

as one-carbon-group recipient, 790, 795, 795f, 795t

Dephosphorylation, 158, 158f, 719, 729t. See also specific processes and substances Deprenyl, 963

Depression, 20t, 975t malnutrition-associated, 4, 14, 19, 35, 37, 40 MAO inhibitors for, 963

SSRIs for, 965

Dermatan sulfate, 985f, 986, 986t Dermatitis, seborrheic, 474 Desaturation, fatty acid, 637–638, 641f Detoxification pathways, 1, 2f, 549t cytochrome P450, 916–917, 916f, 917f hepatic, 914–917

pentose phosphate, 543

Dexfenfluramine hydrochloride, 954, 965, 973 Dextran–sucrase, 451

Dextrins α–, 415, 419

limit, 415, 419, 419f, 420, 421 DGCR8/Pasha binding protein, 312 Diabetes mellitus, 379, 570 amylin analog for, 847 cataracts in, 435, 441

glucose measurement/values in, 56 glycogen metabolism in, 535 growth hormone and, 847, 851, 864

hemoglobin A1C in, 27, 56, 101, 120, 122, 379, 570, 863 hepatogenous, 927

insulin resistance in, 388–389, 660–662 kidney disease in, 979, 991–992, 992f maturity-onset of the young, 166t, 384, 390t metabolic syndrome and, 660–662

metathyroid, 860

microvascular complications of, 585, 979, 991–992 neonatal, 384, 390t

peripheral neuropathy in, 441, 844 recombinant insulin for, 319 sepsis in, 837

sulfonylureas for, 384, 848, 863

urinary tract infections in, 231, 233, 246 Diabetes mellitus type 1, 58t, 125t, 383, 390t cholesterol (lipid) levels in, 728

glucose transporters in, 176 hyperglycemia in, 388–389, 585, 724 insulin level in, 385, 388–389 insulin receptor in, 201

insulin therapy for, 81, 91, 95 ketoacidosis in (See Diabetic ketoacidosis) metabolite measurements in, 41

muscle wasting in, 201 postprandial glucose levels in, 581 triacylglycerol levels in, 723

Diabetes mellitus type 2, 125t, 377, 390t, 732t, 994t A1C levels in, 27acarbose for, 419

cholesterol (lipid) levels in, 687, 720, 728 dietary management in, 417, 431t

DPP-4 inhibitors for, 863, 863t

GLP-1 receptor agonists for, 863, 863t glucagon in, 385

hyperglycemia in, 27, 30, 388–389, 430, 585, 724–725 insulin level in, 385, 388–389

insulin resistance in, 388 metformin for, 697–698, 863

microvascular complications of, 979, 991–992 postprandial glucose levels in, 581 thiazolidinediones for, 658, 698, 863

Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA), 48, 56, 587t, 609, 626, 628t, 720, 732t acetone in, 48, 63, 569, 570, 609

blood and cellular pH in, 48, 52, 53, 55, 56, 609 coma in, 48, 50

diabetes type 1 vs. type 2, 726

fatty acid metabolism in, 48, 56, 626, 723, 724, 726, 728 follow-up in, 63

hyperventilation in, 55, 56

ketone body measurement in, 63, 64, 75, 569, 609, 624 Kussmaul breathing in, 54, 56, 609, 624

lipid levels in, 720, 723, 724, 726, 728 osmotic diuresis in, 50, 56, 57

patient follow-up in, 63 rehydration therapy for, 50, 51, 56

Diabetic nephropathy, 979, 991–992, 992f Diabetic retinopathy, 991 Diacylglycerol (DAG), 70–71

in glycerophospholipid degradation, 655–656

in glycerophospholipid synthesis, 652, 652f, 653f second messenger system, 191

Diagnosis, recombinant DNA techniques for, 319, 330–333 Dicarboxylate transporter, 496

Dicarboxylic acids, 607

Dicer endonuclease, 312–313, 312f Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), 75–76, 76f Didanosine, 234, 326

Dideoxynucleotides, in DNA sequencing, 324–326, 325f Dietary deficiency, 134. See also specific deficiencies Dietary fiber, 17, 415, 418, 424–425

benefits of, 424–425 colonic metabolism of, 422

guidelines on, 424 indigestible, 422, 422f soluble vs. insoluble, 424 types of, 424, 424t Dietary fuels, 4–7 Dietary guidelines, 16–18 alcohol, 17–18 carbohydrate, 17

fat, 17

general recommendations, 16–17 proteins, 17

vitamins and minerals, 18

Dietary Guidelines for Americans (2015–2020), 16Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs), 14t–15t, 19

Dietary requirements, 3, 11–16 carbohydrate, 11

essential fatty acids, 11 mineral, 13–16, 16t protein, 12–13

vitamin, 14t–15t water, 3, 16

Dietary supplements, 18, 608, 613 Diet-induced thermogenesis (DIT), 8, 10 Differentiation

gene expression regulation for, 295 stem cell, 314

Diffuse toxic goiter, 481 Diffusion

facilitative, 169, 174, 175f, 176f

amino acid transport via, 738, 741, 741f, 742 glucose transport via, 415, 426, 427f, 427t simple, 174–175, 175f, 176

Digestion, 3, 25–26, 26f carbohydrate, 5, 24, 25, 26f, 415–425 fat (lipid), 24, 25–26, 26f, 594–597 fed state, 24

glucose, 25, 415, 578

protein, 6, 24, 25, 26f, 738–741, 739f enzymes from intestinal cells in, 741 pancreatic enzymes in, 740–741

proteases in, 25, 738, 739–741, 739f, 740f, 741f in stomach, 738, 739–740, 739f

zymogen activation in, 740, 740f

Digestive enzymes, 179, 415–425. See also specific enzymes diHETEs, 640

Dihydrofolate (FH2), 791, 792f Dihydrofolate reductase, 303, 791, 795, 795f Dihydrogen phosphate, 51t

Dihydrolipoyl dehydrogenase, 465–466 Dihydroorotate dehydrogenase, 813

Dihydropteridine reductase (DHPR) deficiency, 782, 786t Dihydropyridine receptor (DHPR), 936f Dihydrotestosterone (DHT), 694

Dihydrouridine, 225, 263 Dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP)

in ether glycerolipid synthesis, 652–654, 654f in gluconeogenesis, 571, 571f, 725f

in glucose–glycerol cycling, 586, 586f

in glycolysis, 438, 440–441, 440f, 446, 725f in triacylglycerol synthesis, 647f, 648 Dihydroxyphenylalanine (DOPA), 960f, 961 Diisopropylphosphofluoridate (DFP), 140, 141f Dilated cardiomyopathy, 949

Dimethylallyl pyrophosphate, 671–672, 672f Dimethylnitrosamine, 347, 347f

Dioxins, 75–76 Dioxygenases, 407f, 408 Dipeptides, 25

Dipeptidyl peptidase 4 (DPP-4), 863

Dipeptidyl peptidase 4 (DPP-4) inhibitors, 863Diphthamide, 284 Diphtheria, 275, 284, 287

Diphtheria, tetanus, and pertussis (DTaP) vaccine, 275, 287 Diphtheria toxin, 94, 284

Diploid cells, 221, 222f, 265 Direct thrombin inhibitors, 905–906 Disaccharidases, 415, 419–421 Disaccharides, 5, 25, 62

digestion of, 415

repeating, of glycosaminoglycans, 984–986, 985f structure of, 69, 70f

Disease, biochemical view of, 45 Dissociation

acid, 51–52, 52f sodium chloride, 51

of water, 47, 50–51, 50f Dissociation constant (Ka), 47 of acid, 51–52

of amino acids, 80

of binding sites, 101, 109

Dissociation constant for water (Kd), 50–51 Distal-promoter elements (enhancers), 251, 253 Disulfide bonds, 80, 86, 86f

in globular proteins, 109 in immunoglobulins, 114

in tertiary structure, 105, 107 Diuresis, osmotic, 50, 56, 57, 570, 626 Divergent evolution, 89

Diverticular disease, 424–425 D-loop, of tRNA, 263, 264f DNA

alkali effects on, 220, 220f Alu sequences in, 266–267

antiparallel strands of, 213, 218, 218f, 255 bacterial, 185, 265–266, 267

bases and nucleotides of, 213, 215–218, 215f, 215t, 216f degradation of bases, 807, 817, 818, 818f

pairing of bases, 213, 214, 216–218, 217f, 233–234 production of nucleotides, 806, 816–817

synthesis of bases, 806–816 B form of, 218, 220f characteristics of, 220 coding strand of, 254, 254f

complementary, 245, 245f, 319, 322, 323, 327–329 damage from radicals, 511

damage in cancer, 240, 346, 347–349 damage in replication, 212, 230, 234, 240 denaturation of, 220

double helix of, 213, 216, 218–220, 219f double strands of, 213, 214

eukaryotic, 211, 214, 221, 265–267

repetitive sequences in, 265–267, 266f, 331, 331f exchange/recombination of, 211, 230, 243–245

in forensics (crime), 320, 333, 334, 339 A form of, 218–220, 220f

gene expression at level of, regulation of, 294identified as genetic material, 211, 216

information flow from (central dogma), 226 isolation and manipulation of, 319, 321 lo

cation of, 214–215

major groove of, 218, 219f minor groove of, 218, 219f mitochondrial, 180–181, 214 disorders of, 181, 500t

disorders of, OXPHOS, 481, 490–492, 491t heteroplasmy of, 491

mutations and inheritance of, 491 packaging of, 221, 221f, 222f phosphodiester bonds of, 213, 217f polymorphisms in, 89, 319 polynucleotide chain of, 213, 216, 217f prokaryotic, 214, 265–266, 267

promoter sequence of, 251, 251f, 252–253, 255

recombination of (See Recombinant DNA technology; Recombination) renaturation of, 220

size of molecules, 220–221 structure of, 211, 213, 214–220 sugar of, 68, 69f, 213, 215, 215f supercoil of, 221

template strand of, 254, 254f

transcription of, 211, 251–271 (See also Transcription) unique, 265

unwinding of, 221, 232, 232f Watson and Crick study of, 216–220 X-ray diffraction of, 216

Z form of, 220, 220f DNA-binding proteins, 102 DNA cloning, 327–329, 328f

DNA Data Bank of Japan (DDBJ), 96 DNA fingerprinting, 319, 331, 339 DNA glycosylases, 241–242, 242f DNA gyrase, 232, 282

DNA libraries, 327–329

DNA ligase, 230, 234, 235f, 238t DNA melting, 220

DNA methylation error in, 242–243

in gene expression regulation, 294, 301, 302 DNA polymerases, 230, 238t

bypass, 236

in DNA sequencing, 324–326, 325f in eukaryotes, 236–238, 237f, 237t

in polymerase chain reaction, 329, 329f processivity of, 233, 238

in prokaryotes, 232–233, 233f, 233t in proofreading, 238

in repair, 238

DNA probes, 319, 323, 323f DNA proofreading, 238

DNA repair, 211, 240–243 base excision, 241–242, 242f in cancer, 247, 348–349

and disease, 246–247DNA polymerases in, 238 mechanisms of, 230, 241, 241f

mismatch, 242–243, 243f nucleotide excision, 241, 242f transcription-coupled, 243

DNA–RNA hybridization, 220, 221f, 323, 323f DNase I, 269

DNA sequences amplification of, 327–329 cloning for, 327, 328f libraries for, 327–329

polymerase chain reaction for, 329, 329f detection of specific, 324, 324f, 325f

identifying, 323–327

gel electrophoresis for, 319, 323, 324f probes for, 319, 323

repetitive, 265–267, 266f, 331, 331f DNA sequencing, 319, 324–327

in cystic fibrosis, 327–328, 332, 333 next-generation, 326–327, 326f Sanger method of, 324–326, 325f

DNA synthesis, 230–240

base pairing in, 216–218, 233–234 chemical, 322

DNA template in, 216–218, 218f, 230, 230f errors or damage in, 212, 230, 234

in eukaryotes, 234–240

DNA polymerases in, 236, 237t, 238t at ends of chromosomes, 238–240, 239f origin of replication in, 236, 237f prokaryotic vs., 234–235

proteins in, 237–238, 238t replication complex in, 237–238, 237f folate deficiency and, 801

primer for, 230, 234, 237–238 in prokaryotes, 231–234 base-pairing errors in, 234

bidirectional replication in, 231, 232f DNA ligase in, 234, 235f

DNA polymerases in, 232–233, 233f, 233t DNA unwinding in, 232, 232f

eukaryotic vs., 234–235

at replication fork, 234, 235f

semiconservative replication in, 230f, 231, 232f replication process in, 211–212, 211f, 230–240, 230f as therapeutic target, 816, 820t

DNA template

in replication, 216–218, 218f, 230, 230f in transcription, 218, 251, 252–253, 253f DNA vaccines, 333

DNA viruses, 215 cancer-causing, 362

Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), 11, 638, 645 Dolichol, 666

Dolichol phosphate, 544, 556–558, 557f Domains, of proteins, 100, 105–106, 106f

DOPA (dihydroxyphenylalanine), 960f, 961Dopamine, 853–854, 953, 958, 959–963 inactivation and degradation of, 961–963, 962f

release of, 853, 961 storage of, 961, 961f structure of, 64, 65f

synthesis of, 834, 853, 959–961, 960f

Dopamine β-hydroxylase (DBH), 960f, 961, 961f, 963 Double helix, 213, 216, 218–220, 219f

Double minutes, 303

Double reciprocal plot, 153, 153f Double-stranded DNA, 213, 214 Downregulation, 206, 389

Downstream events, in signal transduction, 197 Downstream gene sequences, 254

Downstream promoter element (DPE), 255–256 Doxorubicin, 295, 482

Drosha endonuclease, 312

Drosophila, tumor-suppressor genes of, 355 Drugs, enzyme-inhibiting, 128, 132–133, 140–142 D-sugars, 62, 66–67, 67f

Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA), 9 Duchenne muscular dystrophy, 174, 648, 934, 949t