- •Экзаменационные вопросы по лексикологии
- •1. Lexicology as a linguistic science: the object, aims, relations with other branches of linguistics.
- •2. Word as the basic unit of the language. The theory of nomination.
- •Variations of the word:
- •3. Methods of lexicological research: comparative, statistical, ic analysis.
- •3. Classification of ling. Methods:
- •4. Methods of lexicological research: distributional, transformational, componential analyses.
- •5. The problem of classification of the vocabulary.
- •1. Alphabetic:
- •6. The vocabulary as a complex adaptive system. Obsolete words. Neologisms.
- •7. The English word-stock from the point of view of its origin. The role of native words.
- •8. Classification of borrowings according to the borrowed aspect, degree of assimilation, source.
- •9. The influence of borrowings. Etymological doublets. International words. Hybrids.
- •1. The phonetic structure of Eng. Words and the sound system:
- •2. The word-structure and the system of word-building:
- •3. The semantic structure of Eng. Words:
- •4. The lexical territorial divergence:
- •10. The notion of the morpheme. Classification of morphemes.
- •1. Semantic:
- •2. Structural:
- •11. Derivational structure of English words. Productive patterns.
- •12. Affixation. Classification of affixes.
- •13. Conversion, its features and types.
- •14. Compounding. Criteria of compounds. Types of compounds.
- •15. Shortening. Blending.
- •16. Back-formation. Onomatopoeia. Reduplication. Sound- and stress-interchange.
- •17. Territorial and social variation of the English language.
- •18. Functional styles and basic vocabulary.
- •1. Classification by Martin Joos :
- •2. Classification by Galperin:
- •3. Classification by Arnold:
- •19. Lexical peculiarities of formal and informal styles.
- •Informal style:
- •20. Semantic theories in Comparative historical and Structural paradigms.
- •21. Semantic theories in Generative and Cognitive paradigms.
- •22. Types of meaning. Lexical meaning as a structure.
- •Vinogradov’s classification of LexM:
- •1. Free:
- •2. Bound:
- •23. Ways of meaning representation. Motivation and meaning.
- •24. Polysemy and context. Formal (logical) relations among the meanings.
- •25. Semantic change: its causes, nature and types.
- •3. Syntagmatic causes:
- •4. Paradigmatic causes:
- •26. Synonymy. Classification of synonyms.
- •27. Lexical variants. Paronyms. Euphemisms. Political correctness.
- •28. Antonymy. Classification of antonyms.
- •29. Homonymy, its sources and types.
- •30. Hyponymy, its features and types.
- •31. Phraseology, its methods and sources.
- •1. Native pu:
- •2. Borrowed pu:
- •32. Phraseological units vs. Free word groups. Proverbs, sayings, familiar quotations and clichés.
- •33. Different classifications of phraseological units (according to the degree of motivation, structural mobility, semantic, structural, part of speech).
- •34. Lexicography as a branch of linguistics. Main types of English dictionaries.
- •1. According to the nature of word-list:
- •2. As to the information they provide:
- •4. According to the medium used:
10. The notion of the morpheme. Classification of morphemes.
Morpheme is the minimal meaningful indivisible two-facet unit. Morph – concrete realization of the morpheme. Morpheme variants - allomorphs (inactive, irregular).
Morpheme meanings: lexical (-ly, -ish), differential (cranberry, blackberry), functional (just - justice), distributional (-er + sing- = ?).
The classification of morphemes:
1. Semantic:
root (lexicology) - the lexical centre (nucleus) of the word; words in word cluster are united by the same root m. (hand, handy);
affixational (lexicology) - prefixes, suffixes, infixes (inside the stem: E stand - stood), circumfixes (before and after: G haben - gehabt), tmesis (abso-bloody-lutely);
completives (lexicology) - borrowings from L or G, used to form terms, neologisms: telephone, phonograph (pre- and postposition);
inflectional (grammar);
2. Structural:
free (coincide with the stem);
bound: affixes, unique roots and pseudo-roots (barbarism, barbarian);
semi-bound (semi affixes): in some cases are considered affixes, but can be separate words (proof, water-proof).
Valency is an ability to combine certain morphemes (experienced – inexperienced, *unexperienced).
Factors:
- phonomorphological:
- b, t, d, v, l, m, n, + -ance/-ence;
- s, z + -(at)ion;
- morphological:
- noun/adj stem + v-forming suffix,
- noun + adj-forming suffix;
- semantic (formality :: formalism);
- etymological (*reddity, redness).
11. Derivational structure of English words. Productive patterns.
Derivational structure of the w. - the nature, type and arrangement of its IC. Differs from morphemic structure. The analysis of DS reveals the hierarchy of morphemes making up the w., the way a w. is constructed, the structural and the semantic type of the w. and how a new w. of similar structure should be understood. E.g., 'unmistakable' and 'discouraging' morphemically refer to one type - both segmented into three UC - prefix+root+suffic, but derivationally: un+(mistake+able), (dis+courag)+ing.
Productive patterns:
derivation (affixation) - stem + affix:
degrees of derivation:
zero d.: atom, heart;
first d.: atom-ic, heart-less;
second d.: atomic-al, heartless-ness, etc.;
lexical semantics:
[un[[lock]verbable]adj]adj - ‘not able to be locked’
[[un[lock]verb]verb]able]adj - ‘able to be unlocked’
classification:
origin: native (-ness, after-, fore-), borrowed (G poly-, -ism, L pre-, -ant, Romanic ab-, -tion), etc.;
productivity: productive (-ly), semi-productive (-ward), non-productive (-ard);
POS: noun-forming (-er, -ee), verb-forming (-de, -fy, -en), adj-forming (-ful), adv-forming (-ly);
lexical-grammatical category of the base: deverbal (re-, out-, -ing), denominal (un-, -nik), deadjectival (un-, -ness);
number of meanings: mono (mis-, ab-), poly (re- ‘back’, ‘again’);
generic denotational meaning: negative (un-, non-), reversative (dis-), pejorative (pseudo-), time & order (pre-, post-), repetition (re-), locative (super-, sub-), quantitative (bi-, tri-);
style: neutral (un-, over-, re-), bookish (pseudo-, ultra-), informal (mega-).
controversial cases:
derived vs. simple words: contain, detain, retain;
affixation vs. compounding: afternoon (AmE: compound, Br: derived);
compounding - stem + stem:
criteria: the unity of stress, solid or hyphenated spelling, semantic and formal unity;
semantic structure: coordinative (head+head - bitter-sweet); endocentric (head+modifier - rapid-access), exocentric (from new meaning - redneck);
conversion - N → V:
features of conv. w.: lex. identifiable, new morph. paradigm, new syntactic function;
types: verbalization (to google), nominalization (a try), adjectivization, adverbalization (straight down the street);
shortening:
types:
clipped forms: simple (caps - capital letters, demo, intro, ad), complex (Interpol - International police, sci-fi);
acronyms: NATO;
initialisms: BBC;
graphic abbr. - only in writing (TX, ave., Ltd, cf.);
abbreviation mechanisms:
apocope (the end is clipped): co-op;
syncope (the mid. is clipped): mart, fancy;
aphaeresis (the beg. is clipped): phone, plane;
combination: xlnt, fridge.
blending (telescoping) - abbreviation + compounding:
types:
additive (transforms into a phrase using ‘and’): slanguist (slang+linguist), bit (binary+digit), smog (smoke+fog);
restrictive (transforms into an attributive phrase): socialife (social life), positron (positive electron);
mechanisms:
telescoping non-clipped stems (cinema+actress=cinemactress);
juxtaposing clipped stems (toy+cartoon=toytoon);
overlapping clipped stems: (beef+buffalo=beefalo).
back-formation - stem - quasi-affix (the least productive):
sources:
borrowings: beggan → to beg, burglar → to burgle, sanitation → to sanitize;
compound-derivatives: television → to televise;
shortenings: laser → to lase.
Synchronically non-productive patterns: sound imitation (to buzz), reduplication (so-so), sound and stress interchange.