X 31. Put questions to the words in bold type:

1. Civil engineers are trained at special institutes. 2. Civil engineering is an extremely broad professional field. 3. This work involves a great deal of mathematics. 4. Our country has a highly developed building industry. 5. Big settlements began to grow quickly in the land when the builders came here.

13. Answer the following questions on the text:

1. What is civil engineering? 2. When was the term "civil engineering" used first? 3. What were most early engineers engaged in? 4. What branches is civil engineering subdivided into? 5. What branches of knowledge must civil engineering make use of? 6. What sciences is it connected with? 7. What is the difference between "construction" and "building"? 8. What is the characteristic feature of the Ukrainian civil engineering? 9. Why is civil engineering in Ukraine a popu­lar and honourable profession? 10. Where are civil engineers trained in Ukraine?

13. Render the text.

14. Read and discuss the text.

Text в. The problem of durability in building

1. Pay attention to the pronunciation of the following words:

durability [djuora'bilitil — довготриваліоть, elusive [i'lu:siv] — невловимий, external leks'ta:nl] — зовнішній, moisture Cmoistjo] — волога, deterioration Idi^tiono- 'reilnl — псування, severity [si'veriti] — строгість, суво­рість, mould [rnouldl — форма, behaviour [bi'heivja] — поведінка, appraisal [o'preizal] — оцінка, immersion [i'mo:j9n] — осадка, занурення.

2. Words and expressions necessary to comprehend the text:

rapid alterations — раптові зміни, to result in — приво­дити до, projecting eaves — виступаючі карнизи, cornices — карнизи, звиси, throated string courses — горловинні пояс­ки (гзимси), hood moulds — верхня опалубка, to some extent — деякою мірою.

TEXT

Durability is a very elusive property. If the problem is regarded critically the question may well be asked: What is the degree of durability required?

The durability of any material or method of construction (if we regard walls) depends upon the conditions of exposure. External weathering with rapid alterations of temperature and moisture content results in deterioration of structures and materials which would be unaffected over very long - periods if used inside. It is quite unnecessary to apply the same standards to materials to be used under cover as to those for external use. Then again, the severity of the conditions of exposure depends not only on site and aspect but also on the design of a building as a whole. The shelter afforded by projecting eaves, cornices, throated string courses and hood moulds very much simplifies the problem of rain exclusion and deterioration of surface finished generally. So it is neces­sary to take account of the increased severity of exposure to the weather.

In selecting materials the practice of experience is not enough. Experience of previous behaviour is a most unreli­able guide when a material is used in a novel manner. Many dis­astrous failures have resulted from the supposition that an unfamiliar combination of familiar materials can be used with complete freedom. The technique of scientific testing

of materials is more reliable. It has accumulated definite prin­ciples on which an appraisal of durability may be made.

The durability of a walling material in service depends upon its chemical composition, pore structure and to some extent upon its mechanical strength. Materials vary in the extent to which their pores will be filled with water on immer­sion. In some materials nearly the whole of the pore space may be filled, in others the water may only occupy 70 or 80 per cent of the pore space.

In certain cases the effects of frost may be rendered more severe by the presence in a material of certain salts in solu­tion. Chemical attack and pore structure are interrelated.

Thus, it is the technique of scientific testing that should be used when the problem of reliance is concerned in the sphere of building materials.

ASSIGNMENTS

1. Read the text and carry out the following assignments:

   1. Read and give Ukrainian equivalents of the following internationalisms:

period, resources, region, complexes, volunteer, type, assembly, caravan, central, mobile, family, project, section, hospital, school, balcony, garage, base, limit, initiative, zone, technology.

1. Find in the text the paragraph describing the effects of frost.

1. Translate the following sentence into Ukrainian:

Dwelling houses are being commissioned simultaneously with shops, schools and every services and catering outlets.

3. Render the text in short.