8 2-1650

14. Interatomic bond — внутріатомний зв'язок

15. thermal vibration — теплове коливання

16. electron vacancy — електронна вакансія

17. electron hole — електронна діра

18. electron-hole pair — електронно-діркова пара

19. crystal framework — кристалічна решітка

20. intrinsic conduction — власна провідність

21. to be thermally excited — переходити в стан збудження при підви­щенні температури (нагріванні)

22. ... electrons do the charge-carrying — ,,, електрони переносять за­ряд

23. impurity semiconductor — доміпжовий (невласний) напівпровідник

24. intrinsic semiconductor — бездомішковий (власний) напівпровід­ник

EXERCISES

1. a) Translate the following verbs with the prefix en-(em-) into Ukrainian:

to enlarge, to endanger, to endear, to encage, to entrap, to enrich, to encourage, to embody, to embrace, to enable, to embed, to encircle, to enframe, to entitle, to encamp,to empower.

b) Arrange the above-given verbs according to the models:

1) en- (em-) + A = V; 2) en-(em-) + S = V.

2. Substitute the following word-combinations for one word using the prefix en-(em-):

   1. to put smth. (smb.) into a circle (a frame, a danger, a plane, an act, a trap);

   2. to make smth. (smb.) large (noble, bitter, able, dear, rich, feeble);

   3. to give smth. (smb.) courage (power, a title).

3. Find in the text:

   1. nouns corresponding to the following words:

to conduct, easy, various, to move, able, to vibrate, to carry (a charge), mechanical, important;

2. adjectives corresponding to the following nouns: electricity, metal, sense, experiment, possibility, electron,

ion, desire, similarity, optics, technics.

4. Read and give Ukrainian equivalents of the following in­ternational words:

substance, mineral, group, conductor, organic, phenome­non, associate, function, thermal, vibration, position, unique, basis, control, technique, complex, technology.

5. Find in the text the sentences with the following word- combinations and translate them into Ukrainian:

charge carrier — носій заряду (струму), wave mechan­ics — квантова механіка, electron-hole pair — елекірон- но-діркова пара, crystalline solids — крирталічш тверді ті-_ ла, impurity semiconductor — домішковий (нейласнии)^-""на­півпровідник, quantum theory — квантова теорія, ionic semi­conductor — іонний напівпровідник, intrinsic semicon­ductor — бездомішковий (власний) напівпровідник.

VJ. Find in the text English equivalents of the following word- combinations:

електричний струм, хімічна сполука, сплави металів, органічні сполуки, електронна діра, електронпо-діркова пара, квантова теорія, внутрішня (власна) провідність, кристалічна решітка, теплове коливання, електронна ва­кансія.

7. Give Ukrainian equivalents of the following word-combi­nations:

free electron, semiconductor materials, electronic semicon­ductor, chemical elements, metallic oxides, phenomenon of semiconductivity, quantum theory, electron vacancy, metal­lic crystal, basic electrical charge, thermal vibration, high current, intrinsic conduction, ionic semiconductor, crystal framework.

7. Find in the text:

   1. synonyms of the following words and word-combinations: to raise, to have, to make, to appear, clear, very, very

good, to make an impact, a great number, electron hole;

2. antonyms to the following words:

some, to fall, to heat, low, bad, free, strong, negative, different, conductor, independent.

7. Read, translate into Ukrainian and memorize the meaning of the following terms:

copper, gold, silver, iron, zinc, glass, po^rcelain, polysty­rene, rubber, quartz, silicon, germanium, selenium, phos­phorus, boron, alloy, vacancy, impurity, insulator.

7. Combine the words "electric" or "semiconductor" with the following words and translate the word-combinations into Ukrainian:

circuit, current, power, device, detector, material, phys­ics, electronics, technology, engineering, diode.

7. Translate the following sentences into Ukrainian paying attention to the meaning of the words in bold type:

8*

227

1. Semiconductors are neither good conductors nor good insulators. 2. Energy can neither be created nor destroyed.

3. Matter can neither appear nor disappear by itself. 4. The greatest part of the matter on the Earth is either liquid or gas. 5. Silicon and germanium can be made either p-type or n-type semiconductor. 6. Matter can exist in either of the four states — solid, liquid, gaseous or plasma states. 7. Some fifty or sixty years ago semiconductors did not exist either in electric industry or in radio engineering.

7. Translate the following sentences into English using active vocabulary from the text:

1. Напівпровідник визначається як провідник елек­тричного струму, який має провідність, проміжкову між провідністю ізолятора та металу. 2. Вчені почали працю­вати над створенням напівпровідникових діодів наприкінці XIX століття. 3. Напівпровідники та напівпровідникові діоди використовуються з різною метою і в різних галузях промисловості. 4. Вчені зробили великий внесок у дослід­ження фізики напівпровідників. 5. Вітчизняні вчені були першими, хто застосував провідники для безпосереднього перетворення тепла та світла в електроенергію. 6. Напів­провідники широко застосовуються в радіотехніці.

7. Change the following sentences according to the model and translate them into Ukrainian:

Model: We know that copper, silver, aluminium and other metals are good conductors of electricity Copper, silver, aluminium and other metals are known to be good conductors of electricity.

1. We know that semiconductor diodes are used in differ­ent branches of industry. 2. We know that electrons flow out of the semiconductor easily under special conditions. 3. It appeared that semiconductors possess some unexpected properties. 4. It is known that semiconductors are of p-type and n-type. 5. It is known that this scientist and many of his co-workers made a great contribution to semiconductor phys­ics. 6. It is supposed that the electron moves with great velocity.

7. State the forms and meanings of the ing-forms and trans­late the following sentences into Ukrainian:

1. We know copper, silver, aluminium and many other metals being good conductors of electricity. 2. The reliable functioning of television depends on the TV-set being equip­ped with semiconductors. 3. The term "semiconductor" has been chosen because of its occupying an intermediate place between metals and insulators. 4. An electric conductor being moved in a magnetic field, an electric current is generated.

5. In spite of semiconductors being so important they were little in use al the beginning of the century.

7. Find in the text the sentences with the Absolute Participle Constructions and translate them into Ukrainian.

8. Answer the following questions on the text:

1. What kind of electrical conductors are defined as semi­conductors? 2. What materials are good conductors? 3. What materials belong to semiconductors? 4. What property do the semiconductor materials exhibit? 5. What materials belong to semiconductors, conductors and insulators? 6. What scientific theory gives a satisfactory explanation of the semi­conductor properties? 7. What is the extremely low conductiv­ity due to? 8. What is the high conductivity due to? 9. What semiconductors are called p-type, n-type, electronic, ionic semiconductors? 10. When did the scientists begin a system­atic study of semiconductors? 11. What prominent scientists have made a great contribution to the study of semiconduc­tors? 12. What functions can semiconductor devices per­form? 13. Where are semiconductor devices used? 14. What is the role of semiconductor physics in the advance of know­ledge?

7. Render the text.

TEXT B. SEMICONDUCTORS IN MODERN TECHNOLOGY

1. Pay attention to the pronunciation of the following words:

thermopile t'6G:moupail] — термоелемент, measuring Гтеззгід] — вимірювання, variety [vo'raiotil — різноманіт­ність, entirely [m'taioli] — цілком, peculiarity [pikju:ti'aeri- ti) — особливість, vice versa ['vaisi'v0:s9l — навпаки.

2. Words and word-combinations necessary to comprehend the text:

to pose problems — ставити завдання, heat-resisting alloy — вогнестійкий сплав, sponge-glass — губчате скло, to elucidate — проливати світло, пояснювати, electronic tech­niques — електронна апаратура, non-linear resistor — не­лінійний резистор, electronic amplifier — електронний під­силювач, remote control — дистанційне управління, high- frequency oscillations — високочастотні коливання, to store light — зберігати (накопичувати) світло, technological patterns — технологічні форми, моделі, a steep rise— різке збільшення (підвищення), semiconductor couple — напів­провідникова пара, helioengineering — геліотехніка.

TEXT

During the past several decades technology has posed prob­lems that have required new methods and new materials for their solution. There have appeared heat-resisting alloys, superhard and light alloys, plastics, organic glass, sponge- glass and new building materials. The electric industry has added to its metals and insulators a group of semiconductors.

An investigation of the physical nature of semiconductors and a scientific explanation of semiconductivity have broad­ened the theory of semiconductors an 1 have elucidated fresh facts that make possible the solution of many new technical problems.

The study of semiconducting materials which revealed their unique properties, such as dependence of conductivity on heat and light, opened up great possibilities for various uses of semiconductors.

There are altogether several hundred materials which have been studied and identified as semiconductors. Germanium and silicon seem to be the most useful semiconductor mate­rials at present. They are widely used in modern electronic techniques, for example, in rectifiers, transistors, thermo­piles, non-linear resistors and so on.

At present two semiconductors, germanium and silicon, are of special interest as they form the basis of the transis­tor— an electronic amplifier — in which the amplified cur­rent is emitted and transported within the semiconducting solid. As long as transistors are constructed of solid mate­rials, their size can be made smaller as compared with tubes of corresponding electrical performance. They are more strong and reliable. The highest quality radio receivers and the most complex apparatus for signalization, automation and remote control become more and more tiny in size and cheaper thanks to the application of semiconductors.

The semiconductor devices are used in measuring tech­nique, computers, radio and TV-sets for transmission of signals, for automation and remote control of a variety of processes, for switching on engines, for the production of sound, protection of high-voltage transmission lines, speed­ing up of some chemical reactions, and so on. Semiconduc­tors convert alternating current into direct current, amplify high-frequency oscillations and generate radiowaves, thereby replacing vacuum devices. They can convert heat energy into electric energy without machines, store light and release it on demand, etc.

Although this list could be continued, the number of ap­plications named issufficient to appreciate the importance and role of semiconductors in modern technology.

The introduction of semiconductors into industry began not long ago. Some fifty or sixty years ago semiconductors did not exist either in electric industry or in raj5io engineer­ing. Now the semiconductor industry is developing very rapidly. Its very first steps showed that they may change our technological patterns entirely. Broad automation of all technical processes and their control from one centre will become a method easily attained in various industries. It will bring to a steep rise in labour productivity.

Semiconductors help to solve such fundamental problems as the direct conversion of thermal energy and the solar ener­gy into electric power, and also electric energy into mechani­cal energy, and vice versa, without any complex mechanism with moving parts. Semiconductor couples convert heat di­rectly into electricity just as a generator does it. A new in­dustry — helioengineering — has emerged. Solar batteries are successfully operating on sputniks and spaceships.

This special place occupied by semiconductors in modern physics and engineering and potential possibilities of appli­cation are due to the peculiarities of their properties which are not found in other materials. When considering the fu­ture development of semiconductor technology, we must keep in mind that it is one of the youngest branches of science and technology — of the same age as nuclear physics.

ASSIGNMENTS

1. Read the text and carry out the following assignments:

   1. Read and give Ukrainian equivalents of the following internationalisms;

plastics, unique, technique, basis, apparatus, transmission, generator, direct, complex.

2. Give Ukrainian equivalents of the following word-com­binations:

superhard alloys, organic glass, electric industry, unique properties, electronic techniques, electronic amplifier, am­plifier current, solid material, electrical performance, com­plex apparatus, remote control, alternative current, direct current, broad automation, electric power, complex mech­anism, future development, nuclear physics.

2. Find in the text the English equivalent of the following Ukrainian sentence:

Вони (напівпровідники) можуть перетворювати теплову енергію на електричну без машин, зберігати світло та від­давати його на вимогу тощо.

3. Translate the following sentence into Ukrainian:

Although this list could be continued, the number of applications named is sufficient to appreciate the importance and role of semiconductors in modern technology.

4. Name prominent scientists who made a great contribu­tion to the study of semiconductors.

5. What is the essence of the semiconductivity phenomenon?

6. How did the term "transistor" appear?

7. What are semiconductor couples used for?

8. Write a short annotation of the text.

TEXT C. TRANSISTORS

1. Pay attention to the pronunciation of the following words:

vacuum, drawback, incandescence, crystalline, triode, ohmic, bias, junction, circuit, impedance.

2. Read and memorize:

to get rid of — позбутися, radiant energy — променева енергія, pre-set physical properties — наперед задані фі­зичні властивості, junction-type triode — плоскісний тріод, ohmic lead — омічний вивід, base region — область основи, the p-n emitter-base junction — емітерний перехід, collec­tor — збираючий електрод, p-n collector-base junction — колекторний перехід, forward-biased — прямо зміщений, reverse-biased — зворотно зміщений, injecting contact — живлячий контакт, collector field — поле колектора, col­lector circuit — схема колектора, voltage-level — величина напруги, high-impedance collector circuit — схема колек­тора з високим опором.

TEXT

Before the invention of transistors electronic (vacuum) valves were used to perform these functions. Electronic valves are wonderful devices. Besides their indispensable use in radio and television sets they do many other jobs. They are used in radar and motion-picture equipment. They are basic elements in "electronic brains".

But electronic valves have several drawbacks. They waste a good deal of electricity. One of the elements in a vacuum valve must be heated so that it will give off electrons. This heating requires electricity and produces unwanted heat that needs special cooling equipment to get rid of this heat.

Scientists found other ways of doing the jobs that valves do. So a new device, the transistor, was invented.

The transistor is a semiconductor device for the amplifi­cation of electric signals. The application of transistors in­stead of electronic valves made it possible to design compact, small-dimension electronic devices, which consume very little power. The transistors are successfully used for direct trans­formation of heat energy into electrical energy by means of thermal elements. They are widely used to transform radiant energy into electricity with the help of photocells, or so- called solar batteries. Light sources and lasers are also built on the basis of transistors.

Transistors revolutionized radio engineering and electron­ics. Because of their small size, the absence of incandescence and other properties, transistors make it possible to produce devices which cannot be made with vacuum tubes.

Transistors are extremely sensitive to external influences. Even thousandths of one per cent of admixtures change their electrical conductive properties by hundreds of thousands of times. They are very sensitive to the action of light, nuclear particles, pressure, etc.

Transistors are made of small germanium crystals. Germa­nium is an element crystalline in form. Germanium crystal used in a typical transistor may be much less than 1/8 inch square and less than 1/32 inch thick.

There are different types of transistors in use, and still more are being developed. A very fine technology has been developed for obtaining transistors with pre-set physical prop­erties by introducing into them admixtures of gold, copper, nickel, zinc, etc.

The transistor of great importance at present is the junc­tion-type triode. This transistor contains three distinct re­gions of semiconductor, each having ohmic lead. A junction- type transistor can be regarded as composed of two p-n junc­tions separated by a thin base region. One of the junctions is called the emitter, the other one — the collector. The p-n emitter-base junction is forward-biased while the p-n collector-base junction is reverse-biased. This transistor is a power amplifier.

The emitter acts as an injecting contact and injects elec­trons into the base region under the influence of a very small emitter signal. There they diffuse until caught by the collec­tor field.. The collector circuit has a much higher impedance and voltage level than those of the emitter circuit. The trans­fer of charge from the low-impedance emitter to the high-im­pedance collector circuit yields power amplification. There are two types of transistor based on this structure — the n-p and the p-n-p. Their modes of action are similar, the roles of electrons and holes being interchanged in these two arrangements.

ASSIGNMENTS