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treatments centered on inexpensive ber supplementation. This may be accom-
plished by using various soluble and insoluble bers derived from cereals and veg-
etables. Diets high in ber may help healthy individuals become more peripherally
insulin-sensitive. Furthermore, soluble ber has the ability to postpone the blood’s
absorption of glucose, which lowers postprandial glucose concentrations (Bari
2010; Beirão-da-costa et al. 2005). Inulin, which falls under the broad group of
fructans, has a great deal of promise as soluble dietary ber to reduce these health
issues. Therefore, using inulin, one of the potential bioactive molecules with a wide
range of dietary uses, might be one way to make therapeutic foods (Blecker
etal. 2002).
11.18.2 Extraction andPrecipitation ofInulin
The extraction, measurement, and application of inulin are gaining attention because
to its increasing industrial usage in nature. To increase the yield of inulin, several
studies have examined the ideal extraction parameters, such as temperature, extrac-
tion duration, and solvent/solid ratios (Bonnema et al. 2010b). Upgrading the
extraction temperature signicantly increases the solubility of inulin, which is
essentially insoluble at 25°C but becomes soluble up to 35% at 90°C.Accordingly,
the majority of industrial extraction uses a hot water diffusion technique (Brkljača
etal. 2014).
The basis for almost all extraction techniques is the use of hot water diffusion
with very little variation in temperature and extraction duration. To increase extrac-
tion efciency, the hot water diffusion technique can also include continuous stir-
ring (Vervoort etal. 1999; Wada etal. 2005). In order to prevent inulin hydrolysis,
which is a common occurrence at pH<6, inulin is often extracted from JA using
distilled water at 80–85°C for 1h and pH6.8 as this was seen during the extraction
of inulin from burdock roots; many factors, including temperature, sonication
amplitude, and duration, have recently been proposed to increase extraction by
ultrasound assistance (Wang and Gibson 1993). Without signicantly changing the
temperature, the extraction efciency was increased by increasing the sonication
amplitude and extraction duration. The sonication duration was 25min, with an
amplitude of 83.22% and a temperature of 36.76°C.Because of the direct impact of
ultrasounds, care must be given during extraction to prevent inulin fragmentation. In
summary, employing direct waves is the recommended method for inulin depoly-
merization in order to get low molecular weight byproducts. To get intact inulin,
however, the indirect technique is more suited (Weir etal. 2018; Wolff etal. 2000).
11.18.3 Functional Health Attributes ofInulin asDietary Fiber
Dietary ber is made up of lignin, oligosaccharides, polysaccharides, and related
plant materials that may perform physiological actions in the human body, such as
reducing blood glucose or cholesterol levels and promoting bowel movements. For
11 Inulin andGastrointestinal Disorders
248
those following a healthy diet plan, 30g of dietary ber is advised for those using
2500kcal per day and 25g for those using 2000kcal (Yang etal. 2001). The World
Health Organization suggests 16–24g of non-starch polysaccharides and 27–40g
of total dietary ber per day. Water-soluble gel and water-insoluble bers are two
categories for dietary bers (Yoneda etal. 1848).
While soluble ber is found in no cellulosic portions such as mucilage, gums, and
pectin in legumes, barley, oats, fruits, and dried beans, insoluble ber is found in the
cell walls of grains and certain vegetables in the form of hemicelluloses and cellu-
lose. Soluble bers are associated with lipid and carbohydrate metabolism, but insol-
uble bers have minimal effect on the body’s ability to metabolize glucose and
cholesterol (Yu and Hu 2016; Zhang etal. 2005). By means of the underlying intes-
tinal fermentation, soluble ber may also produce the short-chain fatty acids (acetate,
propionate, and butyrate), which are essential for lipogenesis and lipogenolysis.
11.18.4 Relationship ofInulin andBowel Habits
Due to their agreement with the majority of the dietary ber criteria, inulin and
oligofructose are classied as dietary bers worldwide (Zhang etal. 2013, 2016).
They not only enhance bowel function but also have the capacity to ferment in the
colon and specically promote the establishment of advantageous intestinal bacte-
ria. The fermentation can increase the bacterial population; the resulting microora
can contribute signicantly to fecal biomass and water content of stool, leading to
bowel peristalsis, facilitated excretion, and increased frequency and output of stool
(Zhang etal. 2018). Regular consumption of inulin-type fructan can enhance intes-
tinal health and relieve constipation because it regulates bowel function. Constipation
often lasts into old age and can be caused by dietary patterns changing, drinking
more liquids, eating a lower-ber diet less frequently, taking too many laxatives and
medications, having a smaller intestine, and not exercising. Stool weight and intes-
tinal motility increased in research involving healthy human volunteers fed a diet
high in inulin (Sealy and Chalkley 1978; Shang etal. 2018).
11.18.5 Nutritional Benefits ofInulin
The development and multiplication of advantageous intestinal microora as well
as the activation of the systemic response through the synthesis of SCFAs and sev-
eral other unknown metabolites are credited with the positive effects of inulin-type
fructans (Shivhare etal. 2018). Additionally, they have a favorable impact on the
end products of fermentation and native bacterial enzymes. Several pieces of evi-
dence point to the benecial function of bacteria called biodobacteria in the body,
which increases resistance to infections (Sun et al. 2011, 2018). In addition to
boosting the quantity and rates of development of biodobacteria, inulin and oligo-
fructose can prevent the growth of dangerous pathogens like E. coli, Campylobacter
jejuni, Salmonella enteritidis, or Clostridium perfringens.
S. K. Kadiri et al.
249
According to human study ndings, the gut-associated lymphoid tissues are pos-
itively impacted by fructans, such as inulin and fructo-oligosaccharides, which in
turn helps to strengthen immunity against dangerous microorganisms (Taper and
Roberfroid 1999).
The fundamental consequences are associated with enhanced gastrointestinal
tract repair following disruptions, reduced symptoms of illness, and resistance to
pathogen translocation and colonization. The primary function of inulin-type fruc-
tans is to alleviate intestinal diseases in the population, including hospitalized
patients with diarrhea (diarrhea associated with Clostridium difcile). There have
been documented benets from raising bidal numbers and lowering diarrheal
relapses. Apart from its bidogenic properties, inulin has the ability to decrease the
inammation linked to ulcerative colitis. Fermentable bers were combined with
medications in a double-blind, placebo-controlled experiment to treat colon cancer
patients, with encouraging results. Fermentable bers, such as fructans of the inulin
type, can also improve the absorption of minerals (Terova etal. 2016).
11.19 Inulin: Safety andTolerance
Two macronutrients are oligofructose and inulin. They are utilized as food additives
or as a stand-in for macronutrients. They are mostly added to meals as supplements
because of their nutritional value. The amount of dietary ber in a food is increased
by adding oligofructose or inulin. These increases typically range from 3 to 6g per
serving and, in severe circumstances, up to 10g (Toneli etal. 2008; Tonnis etal.
2015). In other cases, oligofructose or inulin is added to support a particular nutri-
tional claim, such as the one about bidogenic action. Typical values in these meals
range from 1 to 6%, resulting in 3 to 8g per piece.
Inulin and oligofructose are primarily employed as macronutrient replacements
in place of fat and sugar, respectively. Orafti developed and patented the ability of
inulin to replace fat in food in 1992. Inulin is mixed with water using a particular
processing method to mimic the mouthfeel and texture of fat. Only meals that
include water, like dairy and spreads for tables, may do this; dry foods, including
most snacks, baked goods, and confections, cannot. Generally, 0.25g of inulin is
used in place of 1g of fat. As a result, most meals that substitute fat will have inulin
quantities of 2–4g per piece. Orafti developed and patented the ability of inulin to
replace fat in food in 1992 (Tripodo etal. 2015). While oligopolysaccharides have
technical characteristics with sugar and glucose syrups, they differ greatly in terms
of their nutritional makeup. When compared to sugar, the sweetness of (pure) oligo-
fructose is 30%. Because of this, it is challenging to utilize oligofructose alone as a
sugar substitute; in order to get the appropriate sweetness level, it is typically cou-
pled with strong sweeteners. Safety of the inulinase enzyme: Partial enzymatic
hydrolysis of inulin yields oligofructose. An inulinase enzyme that was separated
from the Aspergillus niger carbohydrase complex is used in this procedure. The
manufacturer conducted toxicological testing on the enzyme and determined that it
was safe to use in food preparation.
11 Inulin andGastrointestinal Disorders
250
The Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA2) believes
that using Aspergillus niger enzymes in food production poses no health risks to
humans. These enzymes are frequently employed in the food sector, such as in the
manufacturing of fruit juice.
The Aspergillus niger carbohydrase complex is protected in the United States by
an afrmation petition (GRASP 3G0016) that was led by the ad hoc Enzyme
Technical Committee in 1973 and is generally regarded as safe (GRAS). Inulinase’s
safety has been assessed by Danish authorities, who have approved its usage in the
synthesis of oligofructose. The French Council Superior d’Hygiene Public has also
assessed and suggested that the enzyme be allowed to be used in the synthesis of
several products, including oligofructose (Turner et al. 2013; United States Food
and Drug Administration 2018). Intestinal acceptability: Two key factors determine
whether nondigestible components are accepted in the stomach. The rst is the
osmotic action, which causes the colon’s water content to rise. Greater osmotic
pressure is exerted by smaller molecules, which causes the colon to absorb more
water. For example, sorbitol has a larger laxative potential than oligofructose, which
is likely due to this. The second is the fermentation effect, which is brought on
mostly by gasses and short-chain fatty acids that are byproducts of fermentation.
Compared to their fast-fermenting counterparts, substances that ferment slowly
seem to be more tolerable. This may help to explain why oligofructose is more dif-
cult to tolerate than inulin. Differentiating between a side effect of fermentation
that is acceptable and unacceptable might be challenging (Van Den Mooter
etal. 2003).
11.19.1 Tolerance
A soluble dietary ber known as inulin is fermented by colonic bacteria, is not
absorbed in the small intestine, and is resistant to hydrolysis by human digestive
enzymes. Prebiotic status for inulin is backed by research tracking its movement
through the digestive system. Prebiotics boost the bidobacterium, and feeding
experiments with oligofructose and inulin have demonstrated higher bidobacte-
rium counts. Additionally, inulin may be used as a fat substitute and is a simple
addition to popular meals like ice cream and chocolate bars (Mandracchia etal.
2015). Chocolate bars and other high-ber meals may contain chicory root extract—
a rich source of inulin—as the rst component on the ingredient label. Studies often
document atulence, bloating, distension, loose stools, and increased frequency of
stools as GI symptom. Comparing GI affects outcomes is challenging because there
are no recognized assessment measures for this purpose. Because of the osmotic
impact of increased water in the large intestine, inulin, like other dietary ber, can
produce discomfort. GI problems often worsen as inulin dosage increases and its
chain length shortens. Consuming inulin regularly may lead to an increase in GI
tolerance. It is anticipated that GI symptoms would worsen with doses of 15–30g
inulin; however, there are wide variations in research designs for tolerance trials
(Mandracchia et al. 2016, 2017). This study aimed to assess the gastrointestinal
S. K. Kadiri et al.
251
tolerance of two widely used inulin products administered to healthy participants at
two different dose levels: shorter-chain oligofructose and native inulin. We selected
5g of ber since the product label indicates that this is an excellent source of ber.
Since 10g of inulin and oligofructose can be readily added to high-ber bars and
other food products that are presently on the market, we decided to use this as our
upper dose. We predicted that both products, up to 10g, should be well tolerated and
not signicantly worsen gastrointestinal symptoms (Maris etal. 2001).
11.19.2 Potential Areas forFurther Exploration
andOpportunities forFurther Research
It has been claimed that inulin, a naturally occurring renewable polysaccharide
resource produced by a variety of plants in nature, has a wide range of unique phar-
macological and food applications. The development of high-throughput systems
and technologies for the assay of proteins, metabolites, mRNA, and gut microbiota
has accelerated recently. The inuence of inulin and inulin-containing prebiotics at
the transcriptome, proteome, metabolome, and gut microbiome levels is explained
as of right now using omics technology (Mauro etal. 2015a, b). Despite the fact that
inulin’s effects have been thoroughly studied, these omics technologies only allow
us to comprehend physiological information at each distinct level of mRNA, pro-
tein, metabolite, and gut microbe. However, a synergistic approach is necessary to
completely depict the intricate beauty hidden beneath the relatively little impact of
dietary variables such as inulin on host health.
11.19.3 Nutrigenomics intheStudy ofFood andNutrition
High-throughput platforms and technologies to evaluate global mRNA, proteins,
metabolites, and gut microbiota have advanced rapidly in recent years. As a result,
nutrigenomics—also known as nutriomics, which includes transcriptomics, pro-
teomics, metabolomics, and metagenomics—has been rapidly expanding, as
observed by today’s food and nutrition scientists. In the eld of “nutrigenomics,”
every bit of information that is now known about the genome and other biological
molecules is used to reveal every aspect of how diets and the human body interact
(Mensink etal. 2015a).
11.19.4 Transcriptome Analysis ofSupplemental Inulin
When compared to other omics technologies used in food research, transcriptomics
is the most commonly used one due to the many advantages of DNA microarray
technology, such as the comprehensiveness of gene expression data, established
protocols, and high data reliability and reproducibility. RNA-sequencing, some-
times referred to as whole-transcriptome sequencing, is another recently well-liked
11 Inulin andGastrointestinal Disorders
252
transcriptomics technique (Mensink et al. 2015b). A greater range of expression
values is captured by RNA-sequencing at adequate coverage as compared to micro-
arrays. Because it is a digital measure (count data), it scales linearly even at high
quantities, while analog-type uorescence signals only show saturation in microar-
rays. Additionally, RNA-sequencing offers details on RNA splice events, which are
difcult to nd with conventional microarrays (Merli etal. 2016).
11.19.5 Proteomic Analysis ofSupplemental Inulin
Proteome analyses typically entail the separation, quantication, and identication
of proteins. Proteins in biological samples are separated using two-dimensional gel
electrophoresis in conventional protein detection methods (Micka etal. 2017). The
isolated proteins are then visualized and quantied following silver or uorescent
staining. A more advanced technique based on the same separation concept is the
differential imaging gel electrophoresis method, in which proteins from various
samples are pre-labeled with various uorescent dyes. Two-dimensional chroma-
tography is typically used in chromatography for gel-free separation.
Before the rst freezing phase, proteins from chicory root were subjected to two-
dimensional electrophoretic analysis. Trypsin was used to digest the proteins, and
MS was used to examine the peptides. 714 proteins out of the 881 protein spots
examined matched a database accession; 619 of these proteins fell into the func-
tional groups of energy, protein synthesis, metabolism, cell structure, folding and
stability, proteolysis, and stress response. Since 7 of the 21 most intense protein
locations were found to be involved in cold acclimation, indicating the signicant
impact of the low-temperature interval preceding root harvesting, the signicance
of the abiotic stress response was conrmed (Moerman et al. 2004; Moore
etal. 2003).
11.20 Conclusion
In conclusion, this book offers a comprehensive investigation into the medicinal
potential of inulin to enhance gastrointestinal health. It claries the mechanisms via
which inulin improves disorders like IBS, IBD, and constipation by summarizing
recent research. Emphasizing its capacity to alter gut microbiota, encourage the
growth of benecial bacteria, and raise the production of short-chain fatty acids, the
book highlights how these modications enhance immune modulation, inamma-
tion reduction, and gut barrier integrity. It also tackles issues like the requirement
for customized treatments related to inulin supplementation and individual toler-
ance variations. The book also covers current studies being conducted to determine
the ideal inulin supplementation dosage, duration, and target population. All things
considered, it is a useful tool for researchers, consumers, and medical professionals
who want to use inulin to improve gastrointestinal health. In order to develop rm
recommendations for inulin supplementation and its incorporation into dietary
S. K. Kadiri et al.
253
guidelines for improved gastrointestinal health, it highlights the necessity for addi-
tional research.
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