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Primary adverbs
Secondary adverbs
(Derivational)
þā (then)
þonne (then)
þær (there)
hwonne (when)
hwær (where)
nū (now)
hēr (here)
swā (so)
hwīlum (sometimes)
sōna (soon)
oft (often)
eft (again)
hwōnan (whence)
wide (widely)
dēope (deeply)
fæste (fast)
hearde (hard)
bealdlīce (boldly)
freondlīce (in a friendly way)
SUFFIXES
-e
sweotule (clearly)
-līce
frēondlīce (friendly)
-es
willes (willingly)
OLD ENGLISH ADVERB
OLD ENGLISH WORD-FORMATION
FOR ADVERBS
81
Absolutive
Comparative
Superlative
wīde (widely)
wīdor
wīdost
hearde (hardly)
heardor
heardost
based on ABLAUT
Absolutive
Comparative
lonʒ (long)
lenʒ
feorr (far)
fierr
ēaþe (easily)
īeþe
SUPPLETIVE FORMS
Absolutive
Comparative
Superlative
wel (well)
betre
best
yfele (badly)
wiers, wyrs
wierst
micele (much)
māre
mæst
lytle (little)
læsse
læst
DEGREES OF COMPARISON
82
1 ān
20 twentiʒ
2 twā
21 twentiʒ ond ān
3 þrīe
30 þrītiʒ
4 fēower
40 fēowertiʒ
5 fīf
50 fīftiʒ
6 six, syx, siex
60 siextiʒ
7 seofon, syofn
70 hundsiofontiʒ
8 eahta
80 hundeahtatiʒ
9 niʒon
90 hundniʒontiʒ
10 tīen, tyn, tēn
100 hundtēontiʒ, hund, hundred
11 endlefan
110 hundælleftiʒ
12 twelf
120 hundtwelftiʒ
13 þrīotīene, - tyne
200 tū hund
14 fēowertīene
1000 þūsend
15. fīftīene
2000 tū þūsendu
16 siextīene
17 siofontīene
18 eahtatīene
19 niʒontīene
49
niʒon and fēowertiʒ
OLD ENGLISH NUMERAL
OLD ENGLISH CARDINAL NUMERALS
83
Singular
Masculine
Neuter
Feminine
Nominative
ān
ān
ānu
Genetive
ānes
ānes
ānre
Dative
ānum
ānum
ānre
Accusative
ānne
ān
āne
Instrumental
āne
āne
-
Singular
Masculine
Neuter
Feminine
Nominative
tweʒen
tū, twā
twā
Genetive
-
twēʒea, twēʒra
-
Dative
-
twæm, twām
-
Accusative
tweʒen
tū, twā
twā
Singular
Masculine
Neuter
Feminine
Nominative
þrīe, þrī, þry
þrīo, þrēo
þrīo, þrēo
Genetive
-
þrīora, þrēora
-
Dative
-
þrīm
-
Accusative
þrīe, þrī, þry
þrīō, þrēō
þrīō, þrēō
ān (one)
twá (two)
þrīe (three)
The numeral beʒen, bū, bā (both) is declined the same way as twā and is also
dual.
84
1 forma, fyresta
20 twentiʒoþa
2 ōþer, æfterra
30 þrittiʒoþa
3 þridda, þirda
40 fēowertiʒoþa
4 fēorþa
50 fīftiʒoþa
5 fīfta
60 siextiʒoþa
6 siexta, syxta
70 hundsiofontiʒoþa
7 siofoþa
80 hundeahtatiʒoþa
8 eahtoþa
90 hundniʒontiʒoþa
9 niʒoþa
100 hundtēontioʒoþa
10 tēoþa
110 hundælleftiʒoþa
11 endlefta
120 hundtwelftiʒoþa
12 twelfta
13 þreotēōþa
14 fēowertēoþa
15 fīftēoþa
16 siextēoþa
17 siofontēoþa
18 eahtatēoþa
19 niʒontēoþa
49
niʒon and fēowertiʒoþa
niʒoþa ēac fēowertiʒum
OLD ENGLISH ORDINAL NUMERALS
85
of
of, out of
æt
to
fram
from
tō
to
wiþ
against
in, of, mid
with
on
on, at
be
by, near, to, because of, about
þurh
through
under, ofer
over
æfter
after
bufan
above
ūt
out
beforan
before
būtan
without
benorþan
north of
besūþan
south of
and / ond
and
ac
but
ʒif
if
ær
before
æʒþer ʒe... ʒe
both... and..., either ... or...
hwonne
when
þa
when
þonne
when
þēahþe
though
þætte
that
swā... swā...
so... as...
OLD ENGLISH AUXILIARY WORDS
PREPOSITIONS (POSTPOSITIONS)
CONJUNCTIONS
INTERJECTIONS:
īa (yes), wā (woe!, wow!), hwæt (there! what!).
86
Kentish
dialect
West-saxon
dialect
Mercian
dialect
Northumbrian
dialect
8th century
Charters;
Glosses to
Bede’s
Ecclesiastical
History of the
English People
Charters
Charters;
Glosses
Runic Inscriptions:
The Ruthwell Cross
The Franks Casket;
Cædmon: Hymn,
Genesis, Exodus;
Cynnewulf: Christ,
Fate of the Apostles,
Elene;
Beowulf;
Elegiac poems:
Traveller’s songs,
Seafarer, Wanderer
9th century
Charters
Charters
King Alfred:
translation of
Gregory’s pastoral
Care;
Orosius:
World’s History;
Boethius
Consolation of
Philosophy ;
Bede’s
Ecclesiastical
History ;
The earliest part of
the Anglo-Saxon
Chronicle;
Charters;
Royal Writs
Charters of
Mercian King
Riddles
PRINCIPAL OLD ENGLISH
WRITTEN RECORDS
87
10-11th centuries
Kentish
West saxon
Mercian
Northumbrian
Kentish Hymn;
Kentish Psalm;
Glosses to
proverbs
Ælfric’s creations:
Gospels, Homilies,
Lives of Saints,
Latin Grammar,
Colloquium, Old
Testament;
The Anglo-Saxon
Chronicle continued;
Wulfstan’s Homilies
Glosses in the
Lindisfarne Gospel;
The Rushworth
Gospel;
The Durham Ritual
88
Sound
Spelling
Examples
Sound changes accounting
for the spelling
Middle New
English English
Monophthongs
Short
æ
a
cat, man
a > æ
ɔ
a after w
was, want
wa > wɔ
e
ea before d, th
head, death
ε: > e: > e
u
oo before t, k
foot, book
o: > u: >u
Λ
o, u
oo before d
come, nut
flood
u > Λ
o: > u: > u > Λ
ə
er, -re, -or
reader, centre,
tutor
r > ə
ər > ə
Long
i:
ee, ie, e, ea
meet, field,
he,meat
e: > i:
ε: > i:
a:
ar
a before st, nt, ft
arm
blast, plant, after
ar > a:
a > a:
ɔ:
or, oar, ar
after w, au, aw
for, board,
warm
cause, draw
or > ɔ:
war > wɔ:
au > ɔ:
ə:
er, ir, ur
her, bird, turn
ir > ə:
ur > ə:
er > ə:
MIDDLE ENGLISH &
EARLY NEW ENGLISH
Main Historical Sources of Modern Spellings
VOWELS
89
u:
oo
moon
o: > u:
Diphthongs
Sound Spelling
Examples
Sound changes
accounting for the
spelling
Middle New
English English
eı
ai, ei, ay
a in open syllables
rain, rein, day
make, late
ai > eı
ei > eı
a: > eı
aı
i, y in open syllables
i before ld, nd, mb
i before gh, ght
time, my
mild, kind, climb
sigh, night
i: > aı
i: > aı
ix’ > i: > aı
au
ou, ow
sound, now
u: > au
ou
o in open syllables,
oa
ou, ow, o before ld
rode, no, oak
soul, row, old
ɔ: > ou
ɔ: > ou
ıə
ere, eer, ear
here, beer, ear
e:r > ıə
εə
ear, ere, are
bear, there, hare
e:r > εə
a:r > εə
oə, o:
ore
more
ɔr > ɔə
uə
oor
poor
o:r > uə
Thriphthongs
aıə
ire
shire
i:r > aıə
auə
our, ower
our, power
u:r > auə
90
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