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Sound
Spelling
Examples
Sound changes
accounting for
the spelling
Middle New
English English
ð
th between
vowels
th initially
in form-words
bathe
the
ð - ð
θ > ð
z
s between
vowels
s finally (unless
preceded by
voiceless
consonants)
choose, easy
is, days
z > z
s > z
∫
sh
ssi, ti
ship, flesh
passion, action
∫ - ∫
sj - ∫
t ∫
ch, tch
ture
chin, watch
nature
t ∫ - t ∫
tj > t ∫
g
g
si, se
bourgeois
vision
g - g
zj > g
dg
g
gender
dg - dg
s
c
certain
s - s
CONSONANTS
91
Change illustrated
Examples
Old Middle
English English
Old
English
Middle
English
New
English
ea: ε:
Cf. æ: ε:
ēast
rēad
strǽt
eest [ε:st]
reed [rε:d]
street [strε:t]
east
red
street
eo: e:
Cf. e: e:
dēop
cēosan
hē
deep [de:p]
chesen [‘t∫e:zən]
he [he:]
deep
choose
he
ie: i:
e:
Cf. i: i:
e: e:
līehtan
hīeran
rīsan
cēpan
lighten [‘li:xtən]
heren [‘he:rən]
risen [‘ri:zən]
kepen [‘ke:pən]
lighten
hear
rise
keep
ea a
Cf. æ a
earm
bæc
arm [arm]
back [bak]
arm
back
eo e
Cf. e e
heorte
bedd
herte [‘hertə]
bed [bed]
heart
bed
ie i
e
Cf. i i
e e
nieht, niht
hierde, hyrde
hit
(see ‘bedd’ above)
night [‘nixt]
herd [herd]
it [it]
night
shepherd
it
PHONETICS
VOWELS
DEVELOPMENT OF OLD ENGLISH DIPHTHONGS
IN EARLY MIDDLE ENGLISH
92
Change illustrated
Examples
Old Middle
English English
Old
English
Middle
English
New
English
e + j ei
weʒ
wey [wei]
way
e: + j ei
grēʒ
grey [grei]
grey
æ + j ai
mæʒ
may [‘mai]
may
a + γ au
laʒu
lawe [‘lauə]
law
o + γ ou
boʒa
bowe [‘bouə]
bow
a: + w ou
cnāwan
knowen [‘knouən]
know
a: + x au + x
brāhte
braughte [‘brauxtə]
brought
XVcentury XVI century XVII century XVIII century
1400 1500 1600 1700 1800
i: → ei → æi → ai → ai
u: → ou → au → au
e: → i: → i:
ε: → e: → i: → i:
a: → æ: → ε: → e: → ei → ei
o: → u → u:
ɔ: → o: → ou →ou
GROWTH OF NEW DIPHTHONGS
IN MIDDLE ENGLISH
THE GREAT VOWEL SHIFT IN XV-XVIII centuries
93
Early Middle English
Early New English
Lengthening
before ld, nd, mb in
open syllables
before ss, st, nt, ft
Shortening
before other consonants
clusters
before [θ, d, t, k]
Phonetic
conditions
Change
illustrated
Examples
Old
English
Middle
English
New
English
Before
homorganic
consonant
sequences:
sonorant plus
plosive
(ld, nd, mb)
Vowels
become
long
cild
findan
climban
cold
feld
fundon
ʒold
child [t∫i:ld]
finden [fi:ndən]
climben [kli:mbən]
cold [ko:ld]
field [fe:ld]
founden [fu:ndən]
gold [go:ld]
child
find
climb
cold
field
found
(Past of find)
gold
Before other
consonant
sequences
Vowels
become
short
fīftiʒ
fēdde
mētte
wīsdōm
fifty [fifti]
fedde [feddə]
mette [metə]
wisdom [wizdəm]
fifty
fed
met
wisdom
In open
syllables
Vowels
become
long
and more
open
mete
stelan
macian
talu
nosu
stolen
yfel
mete [mε:tə]
stelen [stε:lən]
maken [ma:kən]
tale [ta:lə]
nose [nɔ:zə]
stolen [stɔlən]
yvel, evel [i:], [e:]
meat
steal
make
tale
nose
stolen
evil
PRINCIPLE QUANTITATIVE VOWEL CHANGES
IN MIDDLE ENGLISH AND EARLY NEW ENGLISH
GENERAL TABLE
94
duru
doore [do:rə]
door
Phonetic
conditions
Change
illustrated
Examples
Old
English
Middle
English
New
English
Before
ss, st, nt, ft
[a] > [æ] > [æ:]
pass [pæs] > [pæ:s]
after [æftər] > [æ:ftər]
craft [kræft] > [kræ:ft]
[a:]
pass
after
craft
Before
lm, lf
[a] > [au]
calm [kaulm] > [kaum]
half [haulf] > [hauf]
[a:]
calm
half
Before nasal
Vowels
become
long
branch [brant∫]
plant [plant]
command [kə’mand]
example [i’gzampl]
branch
plant
command
example
Before
ll, lk, lt
[a] > [au]
all [aul]
talk(e) [taulk] > [tauk]
salt [sault]
[ɔ:]
all
talk
salt
Before x
[ɔ] > [ou] > [au]
thoghte [θɔxtə] >
[θouxtə] > [θaut]
boghte [bɔxtə] >
[bouxtə] > [baut]
[ɔ:]
thought
bought
Before
d, th, v, n, t, k
Vowels
become
short
blood [blo:d] > [blu:d] >
[blud]
mother [mo:ðər] >
[mu: ðər] > [mu ðər]
glove [glo:v] > [glu:v] >
[gluv]
doon [do:n] > [du:n] >
[dun]
deed [dε:d]
blood
mother
glove
done
dead
95
book [bo:k] > [bu:k]
foot [fo:t] > [fu:t]
book
foot
Change illustrated
Examples
Old Middle
English English
Old
English
Middle
English
New
English
k’ → t∫
cild
tæcan
child [t∫i:ld]
techen [tε:t∫ən]
child
teach
g’ → dg
ecʒe
brycʒe
edge [edgə]
bridge [bridgə]
edge
bridge
sk’ → ∫
fisc
scēap
fish [fi∫]
sheep [∫ε:p]
fish
sheep
Change illustrated
Examples
Middle New
English English
Middle
English
New
English
sj → ∫
condicioun [kondi’sju:n]
commissioun [komi’sju:n]
condition
commission
zj → g
pleasure [ple’zju:r]
visioun [vi’zju:n]
pleasure
vision
tj → t∫
nature [na’tju:rə]
culture [kul’tju:rə]
nature
culture
CONSONANTS
DEVELOPMENT OF SIBILANTS AND AFFRICATES
EARLY MIDDLE ENGLISH
EARLY NEW ENGLISH
96
dj → dg
souldier [soul’djər]
procedure [prose’dju:r]
soldier
procedure
Change illustrated
Examples
Middle New
E nglish English
Late Middle
English
New
English
s → z
resemblen [re’semblən]
foxes [fokses]
was [was]
is [is]
his [his]
resemble
foxes
was
is
his
f → v
pensif [pensif]
of [of]
pensive
off
θ → ð
there [θε:rə]
they [θei]
that [θat]
with [wiθ]
there
they
that
with
ks → gz
anxietie [aŋ’ksi:əti]
luxurious [li’ksjuriu:s]
anxiety
luxurious
t∫ → dg
knowleche [knoulət∫]
Greenwich [gre:nwit∫]
knowledge
Greenwich
VOICING OF CONSONANTS
EARLY NEW ENGLISH
97
Change illustrated
Examples
OE Middle New
English English
Middle
English
New
English
xl l
leene [lε:nə]
lean
bt t
doubt [du:bt]
doubt
ftn fn
often [ɔftn]
often
gn n
sign [si:gn]
foreign [fo:rign]
sign
foreign
hw w
when [hwen]
when
kn n
knowen [knouən]
kneden [knε:dən]
know
knead
mb m
climben [kli:mbən]
climb
mn m
autumne [ɔ:’tumn]
solemn [sɔ’lemn]
autumn
solemn
stl sl
whistlen [hwistlən]
whistle
stn sn
fastnen [fastnən]
listnen [listnən]
fasten
listen
skl sl
muscle [muskl]
muscle
wr r
wrappen [wrapən]
written [wri:tən]
wrap
write
SIMPLIFICATION OF CONSONANT CLUSTERS
98
Change illustrated
Examples
After
short
vowels
Middle New
English English
Middle
English
New
English
o + r ɔ:
for [fɔr]
thorn [θɔrn]
for
thorn
a + r a:
bar [bar]
dark [dark]
bar
dark
i + r }
e + r} ə:
first [first]
serven [servən]
first
serve
u + r }
ə + r ə
fur [fur]
brother [brɔðər]
fur
brother
After
long
vowels
i: + r aiə
shire [∫i:re]
shire
e: + r iə
beer [be:r]
beer
ε: + r iə
ere [ε:r(ə)]
ear
ε: + r εə
there [θε:r(ə)]
beren [berən]
there
bear
a: + r εə
hare [ha:rə]
hare
ɔ: + r ɔə/ ɔ:
floor [flɔ:r]
floor
o: + r uə
moor [mɔ:r]
moor
u: + r auə
flour [flu:r]
flower
VOCALISATION OF R
AND ASSOCIATED VOWEL CHANGE
99
Singular
XII century
XIV century
Nominative
ring
ring
Genetive
ringes
ringes
Dative
ringe
ring
Accusative
ring
ring
Plural
Nominative
ringes
ringes
Genetive
ringe
ringes
Dative
ringen
ringes
Accusative
ringes
ringes
Singular
XII century
XIV century
Nominative
care
care
Genetive
cares
cares
Dative
care
care
Accusative
care
care
Plural
Nominative
caren
cares
Genetive
caren(e)
cares
Dative
caren
cares
Accusative
caren
cares
MIDDLE ENGLISH NOUN
NOUN DECLENSION
a-stem
ō-stem
100
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