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81
speak, so called "true leet", is based heavily on phonetic likeness of certain letters and
combinations of letters: Pheah mah mad l33t skillz - Fear my mad leet skills
The second form of leet speak - "obscure leet" - tends to be a more complex variant
which is much harder to cipher and de-cipher, as it is based purely on the modifications of
text and seldom utilizes phonetic resemblance, unlike "true leet". Most words in "obscure
leet" are written using symbols as backslashes, dashes, parentheses, brackets and numbers,
with letters being few. This type of leet speak continues to be used for its initial purpose of
encrypting communication: |0h34|^ ^^4|-| |V|/\|> 1337 5|<!11z - Fear my mad leet skills
Wide variety of complex character substitutions can make leet speak hardly
understandable for the reader unfamiliar with leet speak.
But not all peculiarities can be attributed to leetspeek's unique take on orthography many of the words currently existing in leet speak were originally derived from incorrectly
spelled [6], usually due to the fast typing, words, which then were deliberately and repeatedly
used and adopted to replace the correct spelling [5].
Aside from unique orthography, text in leet speak can also be characterized by several
distinctive word-forming patterns [2].
-or
Suffix -or is parallel with suffixes -er/-r and is used to derive agent nouns from verb
stems: hacker - haxor
-age
Derivative suffix -age can be used to form nouns from a verb stem: own/pwn -
ownage/pwnage, speak - speakage
-ness
Derivative suffix -ness can be used to form nouns from a adjective stem: leet - leetness
-z
Morpheme -z can substitute -s when forming the plural of nouns.
Other common tendency is replacement of -e with an apostrophe when forming Past
Participle. Sometimes -e can be simply dropped or the whole word ending might be
substituted with -t.
Ampersand (&) can be used when spelling words ending in -and, -anned, -ant, or a
similar sound to express the ending sound. Ampersand can be sometimes replaced with 7, as
both ampersand and number seven are on the same key in the standard keyboard layout:
banned - b&
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82
Leet speak heavily employs the principle of analogy in construction of new words
construction of new words. The introduction of new words is immediately taken up and words
are used without the need for any explanation, as context is enough to define them.
New words - or their leet variants - can also appear as a result of need to create a
unique looking word - as, for example, when making a new username or gamer tag, or while
thinking of a secure password. It is becoming especially important with the growth of number
of Internet users, which reduces the number of available (free) names. Leet speak allows
several users to share essentially same name through combinations of spelling, substitutions
and atypical for standard English word-forming patterns.
Another source for new words can be abbreviations, acronyms and borrowed words.
Abbreviations and acronyms usually undergo the process of encoding according to general
leet speak rules, while some borrowed words may sometimes keep their initial form: || - OR in
a Boolean logic statement, != - not.
Leet speak is based not only on much looser spelling than standard English, but also
on a looser grammar. Rules of standard English are rarely obeyed, and mistakes are often left
uncorrected. For example, difference between upper and lower case is often irrelevant and
usually the letter cases become interchangeable, what can lead both to over capitalizing letter
and total lack of capitalization. Vowels may be absent from certain words altogether.
Majority of sentences tend to have simplified structure so the reader has to rely on
their intuition and interpretation of the context to determine the meaning of a sentence rather
than the actual sentence structure. Nowadays the deliberate incorrectness of language usage is
becoming a common characteristics of leet speak, and the reason for that may be the
international nature of online gaming communities that lead to a great number of mistakes and
misspellings typical of non-native speakers.
Another common feature of leet speak is its users' attitude towards rules of
punctuation. On one hand, leet speak can be characterized with over use of punctuation
marks, such as over exclamation, when a sentence is postfixed with many explanation marks
and/or numerical digits (mainly 1 as number one and the exclamation symbol are on the same
key of standard keyboard layout), which can be used to transmit the excitement or any other
strong emotion. This is an especially common practice in fast paced environments such as
online game chats. In some cases deliberate over exclamation can be used as a way to transmit
sarcasm towards the topic, especially if the user replaces some of the exclamation marks or
digits with words like "one" or "eleven".
OMG n00b!!11
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83
As with most leet variants of words or grammatical structures, over punctuation is
often used on purpose to emphasize the user's attitude.
On the other hand insufficient punctuation is also typical of leet speak. It is mostly
reflected in lack of commas and full points - as often the end of the sentence is the end of the
message.
Many words and expressions that originally came from leet speak are now used
outside gaming communities.
- noob
Noob (also newbie/newby/newbee, newb, n00b) is a term for a novice or newcomer,
who lacks the experience and prior knowledge in some activity. While newbie can be used for
descriptive purposes only, noob and its derivatives most of the times have derogatory
connotations.
The term is believed to enter online usage in 1980s, and its source is most likely
military slang, where newie or newbie for a word for neophyte in a place or situation, mainly
a new main in a unit. Differences in spelling of initial term (newbie/newby/newbee) are
explained by it coming from oral tradition.
Two other related terms - noob and newb - are differentiated by their connotation.
Why newb is usually used to describe a new player, who is willing to learn, noob is a
derogative name for a person who is not skilled enough. It can also be used sarcastically to
refer to unmannered person (it doesn't have to be a newcomer) who is being arrogant or
annoying.
- kekeke
Kekeke initially was a romanized spelling of the sound of derisive laughter in Korean,
which later became associated with evil laugh of devious character in different video games
and manga/anime. Onomatopoeias of laughter from another languages also take place - jajaja
(South American Spanish), huehuehue (Brazilian Portuguese).
Alternative source of this borrowing can be MMORPG World of Warcraft. Two major
faction, that exist in the video game universe (Alliance and Horde), "speak" different
languages, so if a member of one faction was to write something to the all-chat, members of
another faction would not be able to understand it due to encryption of chat characters. Lol
(laughing out loud) said by a member of Hoard would be seen as kek by member of Alliance,
and while a member of Hoard would see bur when a member of Alliance said lol. The cipher
also turned hahaha into kekeke. These substitutions became well-know among WOW players,
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84
that used them to circumvent the in-game language barrier. Now, thought, Blizzard (the video
game developer and publisher of WOW) encrypts all the chat characters.
- own, pwn (v)
To own has been given a new meaning in the context of videogames (initially online
FPS - first person shooters). It is usually used to indicate victory in a very decisive,
convincing manner - more importantly, fight of any kind is not needed for the comparison, it
can be based simply on a assumption that one thing or person is better than another.
The alternative spelling to pwn appeared due to the fast paced nature of FPS where
everything happens very quickly and most of the time players don't pay close attention to
what they are typing, thus making misplacing o with p, that are situated closely on a standard
keyboard layout, was possible.
These words along with leet speak itself have become an integral part of modern
internet slang, so it has become important to view leet speak not as a perversion, bastardizing
of English, but as an integral part of modern language, which, even though not always
accessible to the uncomprehending, actually complements standard English.
References:
1. Blashki, Katherine. Game Geek‘s Goss: Linguistic Creativity In Young Males Within An
Online University Forum / Katherine Blashki, Sophie Nichol. //Australian Journal of
Emerging Technologies and Society. - 2005. - Vol.3, № 2. - pp. 77-86
2. Coleman, Julie. The Life of Slang. - Oxford University Press, 2012. - 368 p.
3. Egenfeldt-Nielsen, Simon. Understanding video games : the essential introduction /
Simon Egenfeldt-Nielsen, Jonas Heide Smith, and Susana Pajares Tosca. - Routledge,
2008. - 304 p.
4. Perea, Manuel. R34D1NG W0RD5 W1TH NUMB3R5 / Manuel Perea, Jon Andoni
Dun˜abeitia, Manuel Carreiras. // Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception
and Performance. - 2008. - Vol. 34, №1. - pp. 237-241.
5. Tavosanis, Mirko. A Causal Classification of Orthography Errors in Web Texts / Mirko
Tavosanis [Internet resource]. URL:
http://research.ihost.com/and2007/cd/Proceedings_files/p99.pdf (accessed: 09.04.2014)
6. Topkara, Mercan. Information Hiding Through Errors: A Confusing Approach / Mercan
Topkara, Umut Topkara, Mikhail J. Atallah [Internet resource]. URL:
http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.94.1426&rep=rep1&type=pdf
(accessed: 27.03.2014)
7. Tyyskä, Vappu. Youth and Society: The Long and Winding Road. - Canadian Scholars‘
Press, 2014. - 432 p.
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85
УДК 811.111
HIERARCHY IN CHINESE MEN AND WOMEN RELATIONS
EXPRESSED BY NON-VERBAL MEANS OF COMMUNICATION
Vlasova T.M.
Far-Eastern Federal University
Vladivostok, Russia,
email: vlasova.tm.dvfu.ru
Summary:
The acceptance of the hierarchical structure of relations between people has been a
characteristic feature of the Chinese society: social status and position may be more important
than what a person does. The hierarchy is built on the basis of one‘s social position, power,
profession, welfare, age and sex. In the hierarchical structure of society a woman had a lower
place and obeyed a man. From young age she was taught that feminine yin was dark (negative)
and masculine yang was light (positive). The present research is based on the examples from the
books by the American authors of Chinese origin and focuses on the non-verbal means of
communication used to express hierarchical inequality of men and women.
Keywords: hierarchy, hierarchical order, hierarchical relations, status, non-verbal means
of communication
China is considered a traditionally hierarchical community. The hierarchy is built on
the basis of one‘s social position, power, profession, welfare, age and sex [5, p.63]. All
members of the society have definite position in the hierarchy All members of the society
have definite positions in the hierarchy which determines their privileges and obligations.
Z.Chang claims that the Chinese believed that the stability of the society is based on
the inequality of people, which was able to ensure peace in the country and give people the
sense of security. The Chinese obey the leader of a social group, to the person having power
and authority: ―Superior-subordinate hierarchical relationships require respect to higher
ranking authorities reflected in the forms of being loyal to them, obeying them, fulfilling their
instructions, and showing total respect and gratitude.‖ [2, p.295-296]. Thus, the inequality of
people was able to ensure peace in the country and give people the sense of security.
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86
B.de Mente also notes that in the Chinese society hierarchical order determined
interpersonal relations between man and woman, between husband and wife, between parents
and children, the old and the young, etc. [3, p.60]. Hierarchical order meant suppressing one‘s
own feelings and interests, ―knowing your place and keeping it, and fulfilling all of your
obligations without question.‖ [3, p.149].
Our paper deals with hierarchical relations between men and women as reflected in the
books by the authors of Chinese origin Amy Tan and Judy Fong Bates.
In the Western culture the notion of love is closely connected with Christianity: the
relations between God and man are based on love. The Western morals begin and finish with
love; love knows no boundaries. In China none of the main kinds of relations is based on
love. The idea of relationship based on love is alien to Chinese mentality. Love is blind,
unpredictable and unreliable, therefore it is incompatible with the Chinese idea of the ideal
society [3, p.479]. Love only causes problems, so it must be suppressed for the good of the
whole society. On the other hand, the family, clan and friends are ―the only guarantee that
people have.‖ [3, p.480].
Chinese etiquette put no restriction on man‘s behavior to a woman; whereas of a
woman humility, obedience and modest behavior in man‘s presence was required, e.g.:
I looked around the table, smiling at everyone because of this special attention
given to me… Then he sank the knife in with a mighty push and his huge mouth roared a
laugh so big I could see all the way back to his gold teeth. Everybody at the table laughed
loudly [6, p.277].
(The behavior of a young girl and a man are contrasted: when she can only allow
herself to smile modestly and politely, he roars at his obscene joke, opening all his teeth.)
Describing the meeting of a young girl with her fiancée and his parents the author
describes such characteristics of her behavior as bent head, absence of eye contact and quiet,
barely heard voice, e.g.:
Her head was slightly bowed and she nodded at each of us without meeting our
eyes. [1, p.156]
―It‘s hard not speaking any English.‖ Her voice was barely above a whisper. [1, p.158]
The man in this situation does not show any feelings towards his future wife, e.g.:
My brother‘s face was expressionless [1, p.156].
In the Chinese society the relations between man and woman were usually limited to
marriage, therefore the examples in this article describe, as a rule, the interrelations between
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87
the spouses. The behavior, based on sexual attraction, was alien to the Chinese culture; it was
based ―on keeping most women absolutely ignorant of sex, preventing them from having
affectionate relationships with men,… suppressing any kind of sexual activity.‖ [3, p.423]. In
the hierarchical structure of the society a woman had a lower place and obeyed a man.
Marriage had nothing to do with love; it was arranged by parents (who occupied a higher
position in hierarchy than offspring and had power to control their lives), e.g.;
A girl in China did not marry for love. She married for position [6, p.256].
The Chinese wife did not have to manifest her love to her husband, she had only to
show obedience, humility and submission; she always remembered that and learnt to be a
good wife, e.g.;
I learned to be an obedient wife [6, p.50].
The wife learnt to look at her husband as her master, patron and almost a god who is
much higher and better than she is, e.g.;
I came to think of Tyan-yu as a god, someone whose opinions were worth much
more than my own life [6, p.51].
From young age she was taught that feminine yin was dark (negative) and masculine
yang was light (positive). This conditioned her notion of a man as a superior being, as well as
derogatory attitude to herself, e.g.;
―For woman is yin,‖ she cried sadly, ―the darkness within, where untempered
passions lie. And man is yang, bright truth lighting our minds.‖ [6, p.82].
If a man divorced his wife it was a disgrace for all her family, e.g.;
So I will tell Lena of my shame. That I was rich and pretty. I was too good for any
one man. That I became abandoned goods [6, p.281].
(When Inin‘s husband left her for her cousin she felt so much dishonored that she
thought of a suicide.)
No wonder that a woman was ready to bear any humiliation from her husband and to
fulfill any of his desires to please him and not to disgrace her family.
Hierarchical character of the Chinese society determined the style of the
communicative behavior of men and women, e.g.;
Tyan-yu yanked the scarf off my face and smiled at his friends and family, never
even looking at me. He reminded me of a young peacock [6, p.54].
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88
(During the wedding the groom opens the bride‘s face to show her everyone. But he
looks not at her, but at those present; and he smiles not at her but at his friends and his family
who occupy a higher position in the relationship hierarchy.)
I heard my father shouting at my mother…Father hissed at her. I started back out of
the door. The angry voice followed me. ―If it wasn‘t for the family, for Su-Jen, I‘d throw you
out on the streets.‖ [1, p.281].
(The husband can allow himself to splash all his negative emotions at his wife: he
shouts at her angrily and hisses. It is hardly possible for a wife to behave like that.)
I saw Tyan-yu at the evening meal…He acted like a big warlord… He made
special effort to make me cry [6, p.50].
(The heroine compares her husband‘s behavior with that of a warlord who has all
power and treats his subordinates badly.)
In spite of the low position in the social hierarchy a Chinese woman retained her inner
strength and self-respect, e.g.;
I wiped my eyes and looked in the mirror…I was strong. I was pure… I threw my
head back and smiled proudly to myself. And then I draped the large embroidered red scarf
over my face and covered these thoughts up. [6, p.53] (When she is alone the heroine can
allow herself to be proud and independent, but in her husband‘s presence she has to conceal
her free thoughts: she does not want to fail her parents who told her to be perfect, faultless
wife.).
Obeying the will of her parents (who occupied a higher hierarchical position) a woman
had to be ideal wife, e.g.;
I was boiling with anger, but I said nothing, remembering my promise to my
parents to be an obedient wife [6, p.57].
I could see by the way my mother shrank back and became quiet that she was
angry. [6, p.260] (Humiliated position of the woman deprives her of the right demonstrate her
emotions and she tries hard to suppress them.).
The wife‘s facial expression had always to be nice; if it reflected any negative
emotions he had the right to express his disapproval, e.g.;
He asked why I had such an unpleasant face when looking at him [6, p.50].
In the families with several wives there was hierarchy, too: first went wife number
one; then the wife who gave birth to a son; then the last wife who was usually the latest
passion of the head of the family and the dearest one. That is why Anmay‘s mother who used
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to be the latest and the most popular wife fell into despair when her husband brought home a
new (the fifth) wife; from that moment she found herself on the lowest step of the hierarchical
ladder in the family, e.g.:
She was crying now, rambling like a crazy woman: ―You can see now, a fourth
wife is less than a fifth wife.‖ [6, p.258] (Because of dishonor and disgrace her new position
in the family meant, the heroine chose to die.)
There was hierarchy at all levels of the family: even among children, moreover, even
among girls (who occupied the lowest position in the family). The daughter of the favorite
wife felt superiority over the other daughters of the man, e.g.:
They were the daughters of my father‘s concubines. I was the daughter of my
father‘s wife… ―I know of no one,‖ I told them haughtily [6, p.278].
It is interesting to note that although parents always occupied the higher position in the
hierarchy than children, the father, being a man, took the higher place than the mother, e.g.:
Mai-Yee held out her left hand first for Father, then for my mother [1, p.256].
(The story was told by a girl and she wrote the word Father with the capital letter, but
in the word mother she used a small letter. Thus, even in writing she showed greater respect
for her father. For the same reason, Mai-Yee first shook hands with her fiancée‘s father, then
with his mother).
The acceptance of the hierarchical structure of relations remains a characteristic
feature of the Chinese society: «Social status and position may be more important than what
person does» [4, p.58]. However, the researchers of the Chinese culture observe that while the
older generation of Chinese people tend to be past oriented ―quoting from the past‖ and
sticking to traditions, young people tend to be future-oriented and make their own plans for
the future [4, p.58]. Many young women in today‘s China also start to run their own lives:
they get education, find some job abroad, etc.; thus they overcome the gap between man and
woman in the hierarchical structure of the Chinese society.
References:
1. Bates, Judy Fong. Midnight at the Dragon Café / J.Bates - Cambridge: Counterpoint, 2005.
- 316 p.
2. Chang, Z. Comparative Studies in Language & Culture / Z.Chang – Qing dao: Ocean
University of China, 2004. - 434 p.
3. De Mente, B.L. NTC‘s Dictionary of China‘s Cultural Code Words / B. De Mente –
Lincolnwood: NTC Publishing Group, 1996. - 506 p.
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90
4. Dou, W. Intercultural Business Communication / W. Dou, G. Clark, M. Prosser – Beijing,
2007. - 402 p.
5. Jia Yuxin. Pragmatic Diversity, Pragmatic Transfer, and Cultural Identity / Jia Yuxin, Jia
Xuerui // Intercultural Communication. Research and Exploration. – Harbin: Harbin
Institute of Technology, 2007. - p. 60-73.
6. Tan, Amy. The Joy Luck Club. / A.Tan, - N.-Y.: Ballantine Books, 1989. - 332 p.
УДК 81-13, 81'34, 81'344.3, 81'344.6
ON COGNITIVE ASPECTS IN PHONOLOGY*
* This work was supported by the Far Eastern Federal University, project № 14-08-05-14_и
Zavyalova V. L.
Far-Eastern Federal University
Vladivostok, Russia,
e-mail: zavyalova.vl@dvfu.ru
Shaidullina D.S.
Far-Eastern Federal University
Vladivostok, Russia,
e-mail:needle__91@mail.ru
Summary:
Nowadays studying any aspect of speech is impossible without referring to cognitive
mechanisms of perception, storage, processing and transmission of linguistic images in the
process of speech perception and production. This kind of methodology is basically
anthropocentric, because it is based on investigating the questions of the relationship between
language and human consciousness, language and higher cognitive operations, the role of
language in the process of learning about the world, etc. The productivity of cognitive
research in phonology is in no doubt, as it allows to overcome the limitations imposed by the
requirements of the structural approach to the study of the language, and to reach the level of
intercode sound transition modeling in the process of communication between people. From
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