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Файл:Английский язык. Учебное пособие для аспирантов консерваторий и вузов искусств
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Smog or dust dome is most often formed when a layer of cool
air is trapped beneath a layer of still warmer air. The mixture of benzopyrene (a cancer causing substance that is produced by the evaporation of petrol), the waste of hydrocarbons, combined with nitrogen
dioxide, oxygen, and sunlight produce the photochemical smog which
can be recognized as the yellow cloud over every big city in the
world. Besides that optical effect it causes an increase of ozone in the
lower atmosphere and the health conditions of the particular organism
living in such an area. For example, it is estimated that “Washington
DC receives 10% less sunlight than at the beginning of the century
due to the shielding of atmospheric pollution.” The ozone enters the
leaves of plants turning them brown and makes it difficult for plant to
photosynthesize. In addition to that, it causes skin cancer on humans.
Most seriously though, it increases the acidity of the rain which is
mainly caused by the rise of sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides that
get caught up by clouds. All ready unpolluted rain is slightly acid due
to dissolved carbon dioxide, but polluted rain may be very acidic.
The effect of acid rain on terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems can be
very different. “In Scandinavia, which receives a high proportion of
its air pollution from Britain, once productive lakes are now com-
pletely devoid of fish.” In addition to its direct effect on water, acid
rain allows metal ions such as aluminum, which is highly toxic to
fish, to be leached from the soil. Acid rain reduces the growth of trees
and disables plants to photosynthesize which destroys them in the
long term. It also reduces the activity of nitrogen-fixing bacteria. In
the event of a nuclear accident or war, the main risks do lay only
partly in the pollution of air and air as a carrier of the polluted particles. The main risks arise from inhalation of contaminant particles,
fallout of radioactive isotopes on soil with subsequent incorporation
into food, and contamination of water supplies. The outcome of all
those pollutant factors are enormous. The smoke from car engines
which contains lead, that causes brain damage in children, stinging
eyes, damage of the lung, the death rate of 40.000 asthma patients
every year, and the destruction of whole forests includes only a few
examples of the effects of air pollution. There are many ways to control and reduce air pollution and it is not the lack of technology but
the unwillingness of the humans to change their attitudes and life
styles.
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It exists a wide range of technology for effective air pollution.
Emissions of dust can and should be controlled by filters which remove
solid particles before gases are discharged. Low sulphure fuels could be
used in order to reduce the sulphur emission from coal-fired power stations. For all other forms of waste that get released during production into the air, technology provides a wide range of filters which are able to
remove 80–95% of sulphur dioxide gas. The control of emission from
the most common pollutant, the car, improvements can be made. The use
of lead free patrol and catalytic converters would reduce toxic emissions
to a fraction of their present level and prevent damage to the environment. Of course are the big companies the one which produce most
waste and cause most pollution, but in order to change and reduce the air
pollution, everyone, even the smallest household, needs to change its attitudes and be more responsible with the limited sources the nature is
providing. If humans would be less greedy for money and willing to ensure a safe and clean environment for the children of tomorrow, vast improvements could be made that would be beneficial for the whole world.
Text B. Read the text and make up the list of the main ecological problems.
What measures should be taken to protect our environment?
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
Civilization has brought people many advantages but its products
also pollute and damage the environment in which we live. Technology
has an important role to play in reducing pollution. Waste materials
which were previously dumped can be converted into useful products.
"End-of-pipe" systems can be installed to clean up emissions. And
cleaner or less harmful alternative products may be manufactured.
Air pollution is the biggest problem in large cities and in areas with
concentrated industrial production. Substances such as sulphur dioxide
(SO2) and nitrogen oxide (NO) can cause major changes in the environment which can lead to climate changes. These substances mix wife water vapour in the atmosphere and form sulphuric acid and nitric acid.
Sunlight turns these acids into poisonous oxidants which fall in the form
of rain (acid rain) or snow onto trees and gradually kill them.
Trees are vitally important for our life because they are the lungs of
our planet. The great rain forests are being destroyed for firewood and
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building materials. Since the Amazon rain forest covers an area as large
as the whole of Europe and contains one third of the world's trees, scientists believe that it provides 50 percent of the world's annual production
of oxygen. With more carbon dioxide in the air the temperature will rise;
the ice-caps at the North and South Poles will melt, and the sea level will
rise which will result in the flooding of many coastal cities. Several gases have been identified as contributing to the "greenhouse effect", which
can also cause climate change, Without this "greenhouse effect" there
could be no life on earth because the earth is warmed up naturally by the
atmosphere which traps solar radiation. The result is a rise in the Earth's
temperature, the melting of arctic ice and the flooding of areas, situated
near sea level.
How can the problems of air pollution be solved? First of all people
should try to use alternative sources of energy, such as solar, water,
wind, geolherinal and perhaps tidal energies. There are more ways to reduce air pollution caused by road traffic. First it is possible to switch
freight from road to railways and to support public transportation. Also,
people should be encouraged to drive at the speed limit in order to use
fuel more efficiently. Another way is to encourage tree planting, because
trees absorb carbon dioxide. Then all new petrol-driven cars will have to
be filled with three-way catalytic converters in their exhaust systems
which turn dangerous gases into CO2, nitrogen and water vapour. Lead
emissions can fall if we reduce lead content in petrol and encourage the
use of unleaded petrol.
Water pollution results from harmful industrial processes. If we
want to have cleaner waterways, some measures must be taken. First,
discharges of water from industrial processes should be controlled and
the number of sewage treatment plants should be increased. We should
also find technologies for saving water and reduce the amount of chemicals.
Soil can become contaminated as a result of industrial waste and
other causes. Much domestic rubbish is disposed of in landfills. Waste
disposal should be controlled and maintained properly. Before waste is
landfilled, it can be treated in other ways to reduce the volume of landfill
it takes up - e.g. it can be shredded or compressed into bales.
But in many cases landfill can be avoided by re-using, recyclmg or
energy recovery from the waste material. A great deal of industrial waste
has traditionally been reclaimed. Not only bottle bins or containers, but
also can containers, plastic containers and paper containers should be in-
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stalled where the public can deposit used glass containers, cans, plastic
and waste paper for recyclmg. Domestic rubbish should be sorted out
too. Kitchen garbage and garden waste of organic origin can be composted and turned into fertilizer. Organic waste in landfills can be reused in the form of biogas which comes from natural decay. Litter, dust
and rubbish in the streets also threaten the environment. Everybody
knows that it is wrong to litter but many people still do it. The law
should be stricter on those who break the rule and fines should be introduced for dumping waste. Land can also become contaminated by radioactive substances. More than 80 per cent of radiation to which the public
is exposed, comes from natural sources.
Noise poses a considerable problem for many people. It results in
stress, lack of concentration, defective hearing or sleeplessness. Neighbourhood noise can be tackled in various ways. First of all, we should be
considerate to one another. Noise from new motor vehicles and aircraft
is regulated. Airport services are restricted at night.
We all love our native land, beautiful nature with its blue lakes and
of rivers, thick forests, with its animal and plant kingdom. We are children of nature and we must be very careful in usage of natural resources.
People have lived on our planet for many years. They lived and
live on different continents, in different countries. People depend on
their planet, on the sun, on animals and plants around them. People must
take care of Earth. Our ecology becomes worse and worse with every
new day. People destruct wildlife, cut down trees to make furniture.
They forget that people can't leave without trees and plants, because they
fill air with oxygen. And, of course, great problems are population and
animals destruction. The main reason с pollution is rubbish. Most our
rubbish go to big holes in the ground, called 'dumps'. But dumps are very
dangerous for our life 'cause they are full of rats, which can carry infections away from dumps. Another way to get rid of rubbish is to burn it.
But the fires make poisons, which go into the air and pollute it. And the
seas are in danger too. They are filled with poison: industrial and nuclear
waste. The Mediterranean is already nearly died: the North sea is following. If nothing is done about it one day nothing will be able to live in
seas. Every ten minutes one kind of animal or plant dies out forever.
Of course, people can't stay indifferent to these problems. There a
lot of special organizations, which try to save our nature. One of them is
Greenpeace. Greenpeace began its work 20 years ago from saving
whales. And now Greenpeace is a world-famous organization, which
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saves plants, animals and people. These organizations want to rescue animals, to help them to survive and to save jungle rain forests, which are
in danger of destruction. And they also help animals 'cause many of
them have already gone as they have nowhere to live. Their homes, the
trees, have disappeared. We must save wild animals. And we must find
the right way to save land, people and animals. We must lake care of nature, because we are part of it. People are beginning to realize that environmental problems are not somebody else's. They join and support various international organizations and green parties. If governments wake
up to what is happening - perhaps we'll be able to avoid the disaster that
threatens the natural world and all of us with it.
Text C.
NOISE POLLUTION
Do you really think that “every sound can be music”?
What are the damaging effects of high noise levels on human health?
What causes a decrease of hearing sensitivity?
Do you like to listen to excessively amplified music?
Are you for or against loud music in the streets and public transport?
Noise pollution (defined as unwanted or offensive sounds) unreasonably intrudes into our daily activities. It has many sources, most of
which are associated with urban development: road, air and rail
transport, industrial noise, neighbourhood and recreational noise. A
number of factors contribute to problems of high noise levels, including:
increasing population, particularly where it leads to increasing
urbanization and urban consolidation;
activities associated with urban living generally lead to increased
noise levels;
increasing volumes of road, rail and air traffic.
It results in:
producing losses due to poor concentration, communication dif-
ficulties or fatigue due to insufficient rest
health care costs to rectify loss of sleep, hearing problems or
stress
lowered property values
loss of psychological well-being.
The AEC (Australian Environment Council) commissioned a national survey to assess the extent of disturbance to the community from
various different noise sources. The survey found that traffic and barking
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dogs were the noises which have the greatest impact on residential
communities. Noise pollution, human-created noise, is harmful to health
or welfare. Transportation vehicles are the worst offenders, with aircraft,
railroad stock, trucks, buses, automobiles, and motorcycles all producing
excessive noise. Construction equipment, e.g., jackhammers and bulldozers, also produce substantial noise pollution.
Noise intensity is measured in decibel units. The decibel scale is
logarithmic; each 10~decibel increase represents a tenfold increase in
noise intensity. Human perception of loudness also conforms to a logarithmic scale; a 10-decibe! increase is perceived as roughly a doubling of
loudness. Thus, 30 decibels is 10 times more intense than 20 decibels
and sounds twice as loud; 40 decibels is 100 times more intense than 20
and sounds 4 times as loud; 80 decibels is 1 million times more intense
than 20 and sounds 64 times as loud. Distance diminishes the effective
decibel level reaching the ear. Thus, moderate auto traffic at a distance
of 100 ft (30 m) rates about 50 decibels. To a driver with a car window
open or a pedestrian on the sidewalk, the same traffic rates about 70 decibels; that is, it sounds 4 times louder. At a distance of 2,000 ft (600 m),
the noise of a jet takeoff reaches about 110 decibels – approximately the
same as an automobile horn only 3 ft (I m) away.
Subjected to 45 decibels of noise, the average person cannot sleep.
At 120 decibels the ear registers pain, but hearing damage begins at a
much lower level, about 85 decibels. The duration of the exposure is also
important. There is the evidence that among young Americans hearing
sensitivity is decreasing year by year because of exposure to noise, including excessively amplified music. Apart from hearing loss, such noise
can cause lack of sleep, irritability, heartburn, indigestion, ulcers, high
blood pressure, and possibly heart disease. One burst of noise, as from a
passing truck, is known to alter endocrine, neurological, and cardiovascular functions in many individuals; prolonged or frequent exposure to
such noise tends lo make the physiological disturbances chronic. In addition, noise-induced stress creates severe tension in daily living and contributes to mental illness.
Noise is recognized as a controllable pollutant that can yield to
abatement technology. In the United States the Noise Control Act of
1972 empowered the Environmental Protection Agency to determine the
limits of noise required to protect public health and welfare; to set noise
emission standards for major sources of noise in the environment, including transportation equipment and facilities, construction equipment,
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and electrical machinery; and to recommend regulations for controlling
aircraft noise and sonic booms. Also in the 1970s, the Occupational
Safety and Health Administration began to try to reduce workplace
noise. Funding for these efforts and similar local efforts was severely cut
in the early 1980s, and enforcement became negligible.
EFFECTS OF NOISE
Noise can affect human health and well-being in a number of ways,
including annoyance reaction, sleep disturbance, interference with communication, performance effects, effects on social behaviour and hearing
loss. Noise can cause annoyance and frustration as a result of interference, interruption and distraction. Activity disturbance is regarded as an
important indicator of the community impact of noise.
Research into the effects of noise on human health indicates a variety of health effects. People experiencing high noise levels (especially
around airports or along road/rail corridors) differ from those with less
noise exposure in terms of: increased number of headaches, greater susceptibility to minor accidents, increased reliance on sedatives and sleeping pills, increased mental hospital admission rates.
Exposure to noise is also associated with a range of possible physical effects including: colds, changes in blood pressure, other cardiovascular changes, increased general medical practice attendance, problems
with the digestive system and general fatigue .
There is fairly consistent evidence that prolonged exposure to noise
levels at or above 8O dB can cause deafness. The amount of deafness
depends upon the degree of exposure.
Major noise sources
Road traffic
Road traffic noise is one of the most widespread and growing environmental problems.
Road traffic noise has become a major urban environmental problem because:
• historically, land use planning has not been well integrated with
transport planning, allowing residential developments and major
transport corridors to occur in close proximity without appropriate buffer
zones or treatment to buildings
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• there has been an increasing community reliance on road transporta-
tion, and a reluctance to implement or accept partial solutions involving
greater use of public transport
• traffic on many existing roads through built-up areas has increased
well beyond expectations prevailing during planning or construction of
the roadways
• potential solutions, apart from new vehicle noise standards are com-
plex, often costly, and require coordinated actions by a number of agencies and the community
• while there is high community awareness of the problem, there is a
general lack of understanding of its extent and possible solutions.
The impact of road traffic noise on the community depends on various
factors such as road location and design, land use planning measures,
building design, vehicle standards and driver behaviour.
Air traffic
The extent of aircraft noise impact depends on the types of aircraft
flown, the number of flights and flight paths.
The increase in the number of flights, an important factor in overall
noise levels, has led to an increase in general noise levels associated with
air traffic. Many affected areas reported that they were being exposed to
higher noise impacts than predicted in the environmental impact statement of that impacts were occurring in areas where no aircraft noise was
predicted.
Rail traffic
There are two main sources of noise and vibration relating to the
operation of the rail network: the operation of trains and the maintenance
and construction of rail infrastructure.
The level of noise associated with rail traffic is related to the type
of engine or rolling stock used, the speed of the train and track type and
condition. Major NSW population centres are served by electric trains
which are generally quieter than diesel. Areas affected by freight trains
often experience higher noise levels than areas affected by passenger
trams. The problem of noise is compounded by the requirement of railway operations (especially night operations) and factors such as stopping
patterns and topography which can lead to localized problems.
Rail noise can be considerable, but generally affects a far smaller
group of the population than road or aircraft noise as it is generally con-
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fined to residents living along rail lines in urban areas. While changes to
locomotives and rolling stock mean that they have become quieter over
the last few years, railway noise remains a problem because of longer,
more frequent and faster trains and the build up of the urban environment.
Neighbourhood and Domestic Noise
Other significant sources of noise annoyance include barking dogs,
car alarms, garbage recycling, lawn-mowers, building construction and
household noise. A significant proportion of complaints received by local councils, the police and are related 10 neighbourhood noise. The national noise survey found that noise from barking dogs and road traffic
have the greatest impact on residential communities Noise from barking
dogs is of particular concern because it is unpredictable and often happens repeatedly.
Incompatible land use
Generally the determination of land use zoning includes the separation of activities which are incompatible due to noise levels. For example, heavy industrial area will be separated from residential areas by light
industrial, recreational facilitates and/or retail activities. However,
changing land uses over many decades and earlier inappropriate zoning
controls have resulted in unacceptable noise levels for some areas and
uses.
Are the pollution problems tackled or ignored by the local authorities?
What does smog cause?
Is noise harmful? Why?
B. COMMUNICATION
Improve your speech habits
Enrich your vocabulary.
A Replace the phrases in italics with one of the expressions below.
The first is done as an example.
1. Taking everything into consideration, I wouldn't like to be a castaway.
All in all, I wouldn't like to be a castaway.
2. There has been a general improvement in the weather.
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3. Factory workers often wear garments to protect their hlothing.
4. There were palm trees on every part of the island.
5. When the party had finished, everyone went home.
6. If it doesn't matter to you, I'd like to borrow this book.
7. A two-week holiday on Tahiti costs $699, including everything.
8. They were completely exhausted after swimming to the island.
9. Suddenly and unexpectedly they heard an explosion and the ship start-
ed to sink
10. If nothing goes wrong my plane will arrive just before lunch.
11. Resourcefulness and determination are vital.
12. The film wasn't brilliant but it was just about satisfactory, I suppose
13. «How are the feeling?» «Much better, I'm feeling well today».
14. I enjoyed the story but nevertheless I felt a little cheated by the ending.
There were 187 passengers on board altogether and they tried to get
into the lifeboat at the same time.
15. In an emergency, remember, this is important, don't panic!
Above all all at once all at once all being well all but all important all in all in all in all was all over all over all right all
right all the same all told it's all the same to overall overalls
B. Fill these gaps with suitable expressions from the list above.
1. All _____, I think you'll find that learning new idioms and expressions
is worth the effort.
2.I'll meet you tomorrow evening at 8 o'clock, all _____.
3. If you want to read a book, I don't mind at all: it's all _____ me.
4. Going out on Sunday sounds like a good idea. All _____,
I don't think I'll join you this time.
5. We got caught in the traffic and by the time we arrived it was
all _____.
6. I'd rather do this work by myself, if it's all _____ you.
7. _____, when reading an English text, try to work out the meaning of
unfamiliar words from the context before you consult a dictionary.
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