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Файл:Biotechnology (Биотехнология). Учебно-методическое пособие
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GLOSSARY
Adult stem cells: Undifferentiated cells in a tissue. These cells can
grow into any of the types of specialized cells in that tissue.
Amino acid: The basic building block of a protein. There are about
20 different amino acids. Long chains of amino acids make up a protein.
Antibodies: Proteins produced by the immune system of humans and
other vertebrates in response to the presence of a specific antigen.
Antigen: A substance that stimulates the production of antibodies.
Examples include pollen grains, dust, bacteria or viruses and most proteins.
Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt): A species of soil bacterium that
possesses genes for a group of insecticides, the Bt toxins. Different strains
of the bacterium produce different Bt toxins. Some organic farmers use this
bacterium as an alternative to using chemicals to control pest insects. The
genes for Bt toxins have been genetically engineered into cotton plants so
the plants produce the insecticides.
Base: Part of four types of simple molecules or nucleotides (adenine,
cytosine, thymine and guanine) that are the subunits (building blocks) of
DNA and RNA.
Bioremediation: 1. The use of plants and microorganisms to
consume or otherwise help remove materials (such as toxic chemical wastes
and metals) from contaminated sites (especially from soil and water). 2. A
natural process in which environmental problems are treated by the use of
bacteria or other microorganisms that break down a problem substance,
such as oil, into less harmful molecules.
Biotechnology: 1. A broad term generally used to describe the use of
biology in industrial processes such as agriculture, brewing and drug
development. The term also refers to the production of genetically modified
organisms or the manufacture of products from genetically modified
organisms. 2. The use of plants, animals and microorganisms to create
products or processes. Traditional applications include animal breeding,
brewing beer with yeast, and cheese making with bacteria. Recent
developments include the use of enzymes or bacteria in a wide range of
applications, including waste management, industrial production, food
production and remediation of contaminated land. Modern biotechnology
also includes the use of gene technology, which allows us to move genetic
material from one species to another.
Bt crops: Crop plants that contain genes for Bt toxins.
Bt toxins: Insecticidal proteins produced by the soil microorganism
Bacillus thuringiensis.
141
Cell: The smallest functional unit of a living organism.
Chromosome: A threadlike component in cells that consists of a
single long molecule of DNA coated with proteins. Genes are carried on the
chromosomes.
Clone: A group of genes, cells or organisms derived from a common
ancestor. Each clone is genetically identical.
Cloning: The process of production of a group of genes, cells or
organisms that are genetically identical from a common ancestor.
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid): A molecule of DNA consists of a
long chain of nucleotides that are composed of deoxyribose, a five-carbon
sugar (a phosphate group linked to the bases (nucleotides) adenine,
thymine, cytosine and guanine). DNA contains the genetic code that
controls the production of proteins in living organisms.
Embryonic stem cells: Undifferentiated cells in an embryo that are
able to multiply and become differentiated into any type of cell in the body.
Fertilizer: Any of a large number of natural and synthetic materials,
including manure, nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium compounds, that are
spread on or worked into soil to increase its capacity to support plant
growth.
Gene: A sequence of DNA, located on a chromosome, that codes for
the synthesis of a specific protein or has a specific regulatory function.
Gene therapy: The addition of a functional gene or groups of genes
to a cell using recombinant DNA techniques to correct a hereditary disease.
Genetic engineering: A term used to cover all laboratory or
industrial techniques used to alter the genetic material of organisms. These
techniques assist organisms to produce new substances or to perform new
functions. For example, they can increase yields of compounds already
produced by the organism, form new compounds or allow organisms to
adapt to drastically altered environments.
Genetic modification (GM): Any process that alters the genetic
material of living organism.
Genetically modified organism (GMO): An organism (plant,
animal, bacteria or virus) that has had its genetic material altered, either by
the duplication, insertion or deletion of one or more new genes or by
changing the activities of an existing gene.
Genome: The total genetic material of an individual or species.
Herbicide: A substance that kills plants.
Insecticide: A substance that kills insects.
142
Mutation: The process by which a gene undergoes a change in the
base sequence. Some mutations result in the gene no longer coding for the
correct protein or producing a reduced amount of the protein.
Nuclear transfer technology (cloning): The process that involves
the removal of the nucleus of a cell followed by the transfer of a nucleus
from another cell into it.
Nuclei: The structure within the cell that contains the chromosomes.
Nucleotide: The subunit of DNA and RNA.
Organism: A living thing that contains DNA and is capable of cell
replication by itself, from bacteria to mammals.
Pesticide: A chemical that kills pests.
Pharming: The process of farming genetically engineered plants or
animals to be used as living pharmaceutical factories. The practice has used
cows, sheep, pigs, goats, rabbits and mice to produce large amounts of
human proteins in their milk. Plants are being used to produce vaccines and
diagnostic reagents.
Plasmid: A small circular form of DNA that carries certain genes
and is capable of replicating independently in a host cell.
Protein: A long-chain molecule consisting of amino acids. The type
and order of the amino acids in a protein is specified by the DNA in the cell
that produces them.
Recombinant DNA: The DNA formed by combining segments of
DNA from different genes or different types of organisms.
RNA (ribonucleic acid): A single-stranded nucleic acid that
transmits genetic information from DNA to the cytoplasm and controls
certain chemical processes in the cell, such as the synthesis of proteins.
Doublestranded RNA forms the genetic material in some viruses.
Transgenic: Refers to an organism with one or more genes that have
been transferred to it from another organism using recombinant DNA
techniques.
Virus: A group of particles that do not have a cellular structure and
therefore cannot replicate outside of a living, host cell. They consist of a
molecule of DNA or RNA surrounded by a protein coat.
Xenotransplantation: Any procedure that involves the
transplantation of live cells, tissues or organs from one species to another,
including animal-to-human transplantation.
143
ПРИЛОЖЕНИЯ
H
Приложение 1
List of Chemical Elements with Transcription
Ac actinium [æk'tiniəm] актиний
Ag silver ['silvə] серебро
Al aluminium [‘æljə'miniəm] алюминий
Am americium [‘æmə'risiəm] америций
Ar argon
As arsenic
At astatine ['æstəti:n] астат
Au gold [gəuld] золото
B boron
Ba barium
Be beryllium
Bi bismuth
Bk berkelium
Br bromine ['brəumi:n] бром
C carbon
Ca calcium
Cd cadmium
Ce cerium
Cf californium
Cl chlorine
Cm curium
Co cobalt
Cr chromium
Cs c(a)esium
Cu copper
Dy dysprosium
Er erbium
Es einsteinium
Eu europium
F fluorine
Fe iron
Fm fermium
Fr francium
Ga gallium
Gd gadolinium [‘gædə'liniəm] гадолиний
Ge germanium
hydrogen
He helium
Hf hafnium
Hg mercury
['ɑ:gɔn]
['ɑ:s(ə)nik]
['bɔ:rɔn]
['bɛəriəm]
[be'riliəm]
['bizməθ]
[bɜ:'ki:liəm]
['kɑ:b(ə)n]
['kælsiəm]
['kædmiəm]
['siəriəm]
[‘kæli'fɔ:niəm]
['klɔ:ri:n]
['kjuəriəm]
['kəubɔ:lt]
['krəumiəm]
['si:ziəm]
['kɔpə]
[dis'prəuziəm]
['ɜ:biəm]
[‘ain'stainiəm]
[juə'rəupiəm]
['flɔ:ri:n ], ['fluə-]
['aiən]
['fɜ:miəm]
['fræn(t)siəm]
['gæliəm]
[ʤɜ:'meiniəm]
['haidrəʤən]
['hi:liəm]
['hæfniəm]
['mɜ:kjəri; 'mɜ:kjuri]
144
аргон
мышьяк
бор
барий
бериллий
висмут
берклий
углерод
кальций
кадмий
церий
калифорний
хлор
кюрий
кобальт
хром
цезий
медб
диспрозий
эрбий
эйнштейний
европий
фтор
железо
фермий
франций
галлий
германий
водород
гелий
гафний
ртуть
Ho holmium
Pt platinum
Pu plutonium
Ra radium
Rb
I iodine ['aiədi:n] йод
In indium ['indiəm] индий
Ir iridium
K potassium [pə'tæsiəm] калий
Kr krypton
Ku kurchatovium [‘kərchə'tōvēəm] курчатовий
La lanthanum ['lænθənəm] лантан
Li lithium ['liθiəm] литий
Ln lawrencium [lə'ren(t)siəm] лоуренсий
Lu lutecium
Md mendelevium [‘mend(ə)l'i:viəm] менделевий
Mg magnesium [mæg'ni:ziəm] магний
Mn manganese ['mæŋgəni:z] марганец
Mo molybdenum
N nitrogen
Na sodium
Nb niobium
Nd neodymium
Ne neon
Ni nickel ['nikl] низель
No nobelium [nəu'bi:liəm] нобалий
Np neptunium [nep'tju:niəm] негтуний
Ns nielsbohrium [‘nēlz'bôrēəm] нильсборий
O oxygen
Os osmium
P phosphorus
Pa protactinium [‘prəutæk'tiniəm] протактиний
Pb lead [led] свинец
Pd palladium [pə'leidiəm] палладий
Pm promethium [prəu'mi: θiəm] прометий
Po polonium [pə'ləuniəm] полоний
Pr praseodymium [‘preiziə'dimiəm] празеодим
rubidium [ru:'bidiəm] рубидий
Re rhenium [‘ri:niəm] рений
Rh rhodium [‘rəudiəm] родий
Rn radon
Ru ruthenium [ru'θi:niəm] рутений
S sulphur
Sb antimony ['æntiməni] суотма
Sc scandium ['skændiəm] скандий
Se selenium [sə'li:niəm] селен
Si silicon [‘silikən] кремний
['həulmiəm ], ['hɔl-]
[i'ridɪəm ], [ai-]
['kriptɔn]
[lju:'ti:ʃiəm]
[mə'libdənəm]
['naitrəʤən]
['səudiəm]
[nai'əubiəm]
[‘ni:əu'dimiəm]
['ni:ɔn]
['ɔksiʤən]
['ɔzmiəm]
['fɔsf(ə)rəs]
['plætinəm] платина
[plu:'təuniəm] плутоний
['reidiəm] радий
[‘reidɔn]
['sʌlfə]
гольмий
иридий
криптон
лютеций
молибден
азот
натрий
ниобий
несдим
неон
кислород
осмий
фосфор
радон
сера
145
Sm samarium [sə’meəriəm] самарий
Sn tin [tin] олово
Sr strontium
Ta tantalum ['tænt(ə)ləm] тантал
Tb terbium
Tc technetium
Te tellurium [te'luəriəm] теллур
Th thorium
Ti titanium [ti'teiniəm; tai'teiniəm] титан
Tl thallium ['θæliəm] таллий
Tm thulium ['θu:liəm] тулий
U uranium [juə'reiniəm] уран
V vanadium [və'neidiəm] ванадий
W tungsten
Xe xenon
Y yttrium ['itriəm] иттрий
Yb ytterbium
Zn zinc [ziŋk] цинк
Zr zirconium
['strɔntiəm]
['tɜ:biəm]
[tek'ni:ʃiəm]
['θɔ:riəm]
['tʌŋstən]
['zi:nɔn]
[i'tɜ:biəm]
[zɜ:'kəuniəm]
стронций
тербий
технеций
торий
вольфрам
ксенон
иттербий
цирконий
146
Приложение 2
How to Read Chemical Formulas and Equations
При чтении химических формул буквы латинского алфавита,
обозначающие название элементов, читаются согласно английским названиям
букв алфавита.
Знак – обозначает одну связь или единицу родства и не читается.
Знак = читается: give, form, produce.
Знак → читается: give, pass over, lead to.
Знак ↔ читается: forms and is formed from.
Цифра (внизу) после названия элемента обозначает число атамов в
молекуле.
Цифра перед названием элемента обозначает число молекул.
Примеры:
H2O [‘ei ti ‘tu: ‘ou].
HNO3 [‘eit∫ ‘en ‘ou ‘өri:].
C + O2 → CO2: C plus O two give CO two or one atom of carbon reacted
with one two-atom moleculs of oxygen and produces one molecule of carbon
dioxide.
2H2 + O2 → 2H2O: two molecules of H two plus O two give two
molecules of H two O [‘tu: 'mɔlikju:lz əv ‘eit∫ ‘tu: plʌs ‘ou ‘tu: giv ‘tu: 'mɔlikju:lz
əv ‘eit∫ ‘tu: ‘ou]
H
│
H ─ C ─ H: CH four [‘si: ‘eit∫ ‘fɔ:]
│
H
H H
│ │
H ─ C ─ C ─ H: C two H six [‘si: ‘tu: ‘eit∫ ‘siks:]
│ │
H H
Reading of an equation: Zn + H2SO4 → ZnSO4 + H2
The “plus” sign on the left of the arrow means “reacts with”; the arrow
means “forming” or “producing”; and the “plus” sign on the right of the arrow
means “and”.
147
So this equation is read: “One atom of zinc reacts with one molecule of
sulphuric acid producing one molecule of zinc sulphate and one molecule of
hudrogene”.
CH4 + 2O2 → CO = 2H2O [“si: ‘eit∫ ‘fɔ: plʌs ‘tu: 'mɔlikju:lz əv ‘ou ‘tu:
‘givz ‘si: ‘ou plʌs ‘tu: 'mɔlikju:lz əv ‘eit∫ ‘tu: ‘ou].
AcO- - acyloxy ion.
H+ + NaHCO3 → Na+ + H2CO4 → Na+ + H2O + CO2 ['haidrəʤən ‘aiən
plʌs ’en ‘ei ‘eit∫ ‘tu: ‘si: ‘ou θri: ‘givz 'neitriəm ‘aiən plʌs ‘eit∫ ‘tu: ‘si: ‘ou θri:
‘givz 'neitriəm ‘aiən plʌs ‘eit∫ ‘tu: ‘ou ‘plʌs ‘tu: ‘si: ‘tu:].
148
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технологических процессов): учебное пособие / Ю.Н. Зиятдинова,
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