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Файл:Biotechnology (Биотехнология). Учебно-методическое пособие
.pdf
5. Прочитайте и переведите цитату. Выучите высказывание
наизусть
“The problems of chemistry and biology can be greatly helped if our ability
to see what we are doing, and to do things on an atomic level, is ultimately
developed—a development which I think cannot be avoided.”
Richard Feynman
6. Переведите текст
Физики, химики и другие представители естественных наук
могут с полным правом заявить, что всегда так или иначе были
связаны с нанотехнологиями. Предметы изучения классической
физики атома, изучаемые химиками молекулы – все являются
обитателями нано- космоса. Имеющиеся на сегодняшний день
экспериментальные возможности, такие как тщательное атомное
структурирование скоплений, слоев, микросхем, а также наличие
веществ очень высокой степени очистки и исследования мельчайших
биологических структур открывают новые горизонты возможностей, в
том числе и для инженерного дела54.
7. Составьте рассказ о нанотехнологиях.
54
http://stereoshnur.ru/transport/nanotekhnologii_novinki_zavtrashnego_dnja__m_
__2006__60_s_8.html
111
Unit 29. BIONANOTECHNOLOGY
А
B
1. Прочитайте следующие интернациональные слова вслух и,
основываясь на значениях соответствующих русских слов,
определите их значение:
genetic, code, enzyme, natural, organism, biological, atom, molecular,
model, motor, medicine, reality, hormone, sensor, hybrid
2. Прочитайте и переведите следующие глаголы:
to be poised to, to share, to define, to modify, to combine, to design, to
perform, to biuld, to treat, to provide, to flex, to venture into
3. Подберите словам и словосочетаниям из колонки А
эквивалентный перевод в колонке В
1) end gole
2) tools
3) replacement therapy
4) biodegradable
a) разлагаемые микроорганизмами
b) замещающая терапия
c) конечная цель
d) инструменты
4. Переведите текст
Bionanotechnology
We are now poised to extend biotechnology into bionanotechnology.
I will define bionanotechnology here as applications that require human
design and construction at the nanoscale level and will label projects as
biotechnology when nanoscale understanding and design are not necessary.
Biotechnology grew from the use of natural enzymes to manipulate the
genetic code, which was then used to modify entire organisms. The atomic
details were not really important—existing functionalities were combined
to achieve the end goal.
Bionanotechnology has many different faces, but all share a central
concept: the ability to design molecular machinery to atomic specifications.
Today, individual bionanomachines are being designed and created to
perform specific nanoscale tasks, such as the targeting of a cancer cell or
the solution of a simple computational task. Many are toy problems,
112
designed to test our understanding and control of these tiny machines. As
bionanotechnology matures, we will redesign the biomolecular machinery
of the cell to perform large-scale tasks for human health and technology.
Macroscopic structures will be built to atomic precision with existing
biomolecular assemblers or by using biological models for assembly.
Looking to cells, we can find atomically precise molecule-sized motors,
girders, random-access memory, sensors, and a host of other useful
mechanisms, all ready to be harnessed by bionanotechnology. And the
technology for designing and constructing these machines in bulk scale is
well worked out and ready for application today.
Nanomedicine will be the biggest winner. Bionanomachines work
best in the environment of a living cell and so are tailored for medical
applications. Complex molecules that seek out diseased or cancerous cells
are already a reality. Sensors for diagnosing diseased states are under
development. Replacement therapy, with custom-constructed molecules, is
used today to treat diabetes and growth hormone deficiencies, with many
other applications on the horizon.
Biomaterials are another major application of bionanotechnology.
We already use biomaterials extensively. Biomaterials address our growing
ecological sensitivity—biomaterials are strong but biodegradable.
Biomaterials also integrate perfectly with living tissue, so they are ideal for
medical applications.
The production of hybrid machines, part biological and part
inorganic, is another active area of research in bionanotechnology that
promises to yield great fruits.
Finally, Drexler and others have seen biological molecules as an
avenue to reach their own goal of mechanosynthesis using nanorobots.
Working nanomachines provide important lessons for the construction of
our own nanotechnology, whether based directly on biology or constructed
completely from our own imagination55.
5. Ответьте на вопросы
1) Explain why ethanol/E85 is a product of biotechnology.
2) How bioremediation is a type of biotechnology?
3) How composting is a form of biotechnology?
4) Give two reasons why people are looking for alternatives to fossil fuels.
55
EUR 21151. Nanotechnology. Innovation for tomorrow’s world. Luxembourg:
Office for Official Publications of the European Communities. 2004 . 56 pp.
113
5) Explain why an oil spill at sea is harmful for animals that live in or near
the ocean.
6) What do soil fertilizers have to do with bioremediation?
6. Обсудите следующие вопросы:
1) Should a scientist gather as much existing information on his subject as
he can before doing his own research? Why?
2) Are there any cases when people devote years investigating a
phenomenon of nature which has already been explained to someone else?
What is it necessary to do to avoid such sad things?
3) Many scientists state that it is important to formulate a possible solution
to the problem before starting experiments? What is your opinion?
4) Is it possible to teach a person how to develop hypotheses?
5) In what way do you design your experiments?
6) How many stages does an experiment consist of?
7) Are you an experimentalist or a theoretician?
8) What attitudes are necessary for successful work in experimentation and
theoretical research?
9) What is the interrelation between theory and experiment?
10) A theory is a probable explanation for observed phenomenon,
supported by numerous data, isn’t it? What theories do you use in your
research?
11) Are you inclined to question theories or do you take all of them for
granted?
7. Составьте диалог на тему: “Биотехнологии в нашей жизни”.
Включите в диалог следующие выражения:
Agreeing (согласие)
I agree up to a point, but …
I agree with that point of view on the whole.
I completely/totally agree with that point of view.
I couldn’t agree more!
Disagreeing (несогласие)
I’m not really sure about that …
I don’t really agree with that point of view, because …
I completely/totally disagree with that point of view.
I think it’s ridiculous to say …
114
8. Решите биотехнологический кроссворд56.
Down
1. A very small living thing.
2. The organism that is produced through reproduction.
3. A living thing.
4. The use of living things to help us improve our lives.
6. A tiny, fungus microorganism that exists in the air and in the ground.
7. Organisms that have only one cell; can be helpful and/or harmful.
8. A substance that kills the bacteria that can make people sick.
56
Biotechnology: with student activities. Laura M. Johnson, 2011.-
115
11. How an organism looks (such as shape, size, fur color, and so on).
12. A natural substance found in an organism that can affect chemical
reactions.
16. An enzyme from the lining of a mammal’s stomach that can turn milk
into cheese.
Across
5. How an organism acts (such as level of energy, aggressiveness, hunting
ability, and so on).
9. Instructions for certail traits.
10. An educated prediction that can be tested in an experiment.
13. A mictoorganism that is a type of fungus, which is neither plant nor
animal; usually black, green, or blue; gets its nutrients by absorbing them
from other organisms.
14. When yest eats sugars and produces carbon dioxide gas.
15. The process by which two organisms with desirable traits are mated
together to produce offspring with those desired traits.
116
Part 6. SUPPLEMENTARY READING
Text 1. Biotechnology and the Two -Week Revolution
The Two-Week Revolution has already occurred, although it has
lasted for decades instead of weeks. Biotechnology uses the ready-made
assemblers available in living cells to build thousands of custom-designed
molecules to atomic specifications, including the construction of new
assemblers. This has lead to myriad applications, including commercial
production of hormones and drugs, elegant methods for diagnosing and
curing infectious and genetic diseases, and engineering of organisms for
specialized tasks such as bioremediation and disease resistance.
Biotechnology took several decades to gather momentum. The
primary impediment has been the lack of basic knowledge of biomolecular
processes and mechanisms. We have been given an incredible toolbox of
molecular machinery, and we are only now beginning to learn how to use it.
The key enabling technology, recombinant DNA, made the natural protein
assembler of the cell available for use. The subsequent years have yielded
numerous refinements on the technology, and numerous ideas on how it
might be exploited.
Biotechnology has grown, and is still growing, with each new
discovery in molecular biology. Further research into viral biology has led
to improved vectors for delivering new genetic material. An explosion of
enzymes for clipping, editing, ligating, and copying DNA, as well as
efficient techniques for the chemical synthesis of DNA, has allowed the
creation of complicated new genetic constructs. Engineered bacteria now
create large quantities of natural proteins for medicinal use, mutated
proteins for research, hybrid chimeric proteins for specialized applications,
and entirely new proteins, if a researcher is bold enough to design a protein
from scratch57.
57
Мельникова В.А., Барановская М.Е., Халикова Д.Г. Microbiology and
Biotechnology. Указ. соч.
117
Text 2. What Is Bionanotechnology?
Nanotechnology and bionanotechnology are entirely new concepts,
invented late in the twentieth century, and biotechnology has only been
around for a few decades, so the scope of these fields is still being defined.
With so many clever researchers working on all aspects of nanoscale
structure, construction, and function, new examples that cross existing
conceptual boundaries are appearing daily. Before getting started, it is
worth spending a moment to compare the many technologies working at
small scales and try todefine the current scope of bionanotechnology.
Chemistry was the first science to manipulate molecules, starting
when the first human beings cooked their food. Today, chemists design
molecules and perform extensive, controlled syntheses to create them.
Chemistry differs from bionanotechnology because it does not work at the
level of individual molecules. There is no localization at the atomic level
and no ability to address individual molecules. As a consequence of the
bulk nature of chemistry, the molecules produced are generally limited to
under a hundred atoms or so—syntheses of larger molecules are plagued by
too many side reactions that form competing impurities.
Photolithography is widely used for the creation of computer
hardware, and the growing field of MEMS is applying these technologies to
the creation of microscale machines. Our entire information and
communication technology relies on these methods. It relies on
photographic techniques for reduction of scale and random deposition of
atoms within the mask. Thus it is a macroscale technique scaled down to its
finest limits.
Biotechnology harnesses biological processes and uses them for our
own applications. In this book, I will limit the scope of biotechnology to
applications that do not require atomic specification of biomolecules. For
instance, researchers routinely use purified enzymes to cut and paste genetic
instructions and add these back into cells. Knowledge of the atomic details
are unimportant, just as knowledge of the type of ink used to print this page
is not important for understanding of the words printed here.
Nanotechnology has been defined as engineering and manufacturing
at nanometer scales, with atomic precision. The theoretical constructions
popularized by K. Eric Drexler and the Foresight Institute are perhaps the
most visible examples, and these are often further classified as “molecular
nanotechnology.”
The positioning of individual argon atoms on a crystal surface by
researchers at IBM is a successful example of nanotechnology.
118
Bionanotechnology is a subset of nanotechnology: atom-level
engineering and manufacturing using biological precedents for guidance. It
is also closely married to biotechnology but adds the ability to design and
modify the atomic-level details of the objects created. Bionanomachines are
designed to atomic specifications, they perform a well-defined threedimensional molecular task, and, in the best applications, they contain
mechanisms for individual control embedded in their structure58.
58
Мельникова, В.А., Барановская М.Е., Халикова Д.Г. Microbiology and
Biotechnology. Указ. соч.
Text 3. Biomolecular Design and Biotechnology
Today, we have an abundant variety of methods for doing things on
an atomic level. Chemists were already constructing molecules atom-byatom at the time that Richard Feynman gave his visionary talk, and today,
chemistry is a powerful method for constructing molecules with several
dozen atoms. In the time since Feynman’s talk, the fields of physics and
biology have yielded additional methods for working at the atomic scale.
Physicists are pushing atoms around with atomic force microscopes and
trapping them with optical tweezers, and biologists have harnessed the rich
collection of natural bionanomachinery to perform our own custom
molecular tasks.
Bionanotechnology is widely accessible, more so than any other
cutting- edge application of nanotechnology. Silicon-based fabrication
techniques, to reach the nanometer scale, must push the resolution of
fabrication machinery to their limits, making the process expensive and
available only to large corporations and laboratories with extensive
resources. The diamondoid models of molecular nanotechnology are purely
theoretical. But powerful tools for designing bionanomachines are available
to anyone with a computer and imagination, and effective tools for
producing these custom bionanomachines are accessible to any moderatelysized biotech start-up company.
Current methods of biotechnology excel at modification. This is a
powerful capability that leverages the extensive body of working
nanomachinery that is available from natural sources. We can introduce
specific changes into the plans for a given protein, or we can splice together
the plans for several different proteins, creating a hybrid molecule with
combined function.
Using these modified plans, we can then engineer bacteria to produce
large quantities of the mutant or chimeric protein. Thousands of academic
and industrial laboratories are using these methods for medicine,
bioremediation, and countless other applications. And several exciting new
techniques based on biological evolution, allow thousands of modifications
to be tested simultaneously, greatly speeding the discovery of biomolecules
with new functions.
Design of entirely new bionanomachines, on the other hand, is
currently more difficult than modification of natural bionanomachines.
Evolution has designed complex machines with subtle mechanisms,
incorporating flexibility and self-assembly in ways that are difficult to
predict and design.
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