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In this world we are all pushed to evil, but nothing motivates us for good,
nothing impels except freedom itself.
Freedom is the ability of a person to act in accordance with his interests and
objectives to exercise his choice. People are not free in their choice of the objective
conditions of their activity, but they also have specific and relative freedom, when
they have a possibility to choose the goals and means of achieving them within the
norms and values of the society.
The subject of ethics.
Ethics in society is emerging as a result of awareness of the role of the moral
relationships and in developed condition, is a science of morality, that contains two
components: theoretical research (theoretical ethics) and regulatory development
(normative ethics).
Theoretical ethics explores the origin and nature of morality, its role and place
in society, function, mechanism of action, its main components (primarily moral
consciousness and moral behavior), the nature of the relationship between them, the
structure of moral relations and their value for the system of social relations as a
whole. Furthermore, theoretical ethics identifies the content of the axiological bases
of morality (good, evil, the sense of life, happiness), is developing a scale of morality
(ideal-virtue-vice) and defines its criteria. In contact to psychology and sociology, it
explores the real level of morality in society (moral) and factors affecting it.
Normative ethics focuses its interest on the study of spontaneously emerging
views of moral consciousness, which reflects the motivations included in moral
standards of a human behavior, updating, analyzing, specifying them, transforming
into specific recommendations, normative ethics develops the ways to improve moral
practices of society. Normative Ethics deals with the question of how a man should
behave.
Humans by nature are peculiar manifestation of selfishness and altruism *.
Ethics aims to explain why altruism is preferable to selfishness.
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The task of rational justification of moral values is very difficult. Most moral
acts are often inexplicable from the point of view of common sense, contrary to
practical use.
Experience often shows the moral perfection and worldly well-being, since
moral values are not only related to the human mind, but also to his feelings, beliefs,
moral faith. That is why there is no such ethical problem that could be resolved once
and forever.
The role of ethics as science in the present modern society has experienced a
period of great: it should analyze the moral condition of society, state the reasons that
caused this state, propose solutions that would help renew the moral compass of the
society.
Questions for self control:
1. What is the origin of ethics and morality?
2. Does the scientific meaning of the words “ethics” “consciences” and
“morality” coincide with their day-to-day use?
3. What is the moral dimension of a person and the moral dimension of a
society?
4. Who is considered the “father” of the modern ethics?
5. What are the object and the subject of the science?
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LECTURE 1.2. THE MAIN ETHICAL CONCEPTS
1.The content and the main functions of morality.
2.The main concepts of ethics and morality: rigorism and eudemonism.
3The main concepts of ethics and morality: humanism and authoritarism.
4.Empiric transcendental nature of ethics.
5.Holistic and relativistic approach to the nature of ethics.
6.Emotional and rational approach to the nature of ethics.
The content and the main functions of morality.
Practical functioning of morality in the real context of human life is connected
with 2 main problems of humanity
a) How virtue coincides with happiness; eternal values- with the necessity
to meet every day needs and achieve success in life which are considered relative
good
b) How morality, which is the expression of a good will of a person
obtains universally significant character, as a result of what serving to others becomes
the serving to yourself.
Understanding of these two problems became the main task and the main
difficulty of ethics. It is the variety of different answers to these questions that
presupposes the diversity of ethical theories, schools and traditions.
Thinking over the sense of human’s life activity, the nature of good and virtue,
Plato used the following image:
“ In front of you, like in front of the cupbearer, there are two streams flowing,
one of them is the stream of pleasure, which can be compared with honey, the other is
the stream of sobering comprehension, that can be compared with pure fresh water.
And it is necessary to do your best to mix these two streams with the best results.”
Pure water is tasteless, pure honey is poisonous. Only together they create the
beverage of life. The main function of ethics is to find out its formula.
The history of culture suggests a lot of different recipes of this beverage. Let’s
observe those of them that were the best and remained in culture in the form of stable
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long-term traditions and authors of which obtained the reputation of great moralists
and the teachers of humanity.
In fact, it is possible to say, that there are as many concepts of morality as
many philosophers. But it is possible to differentiate several general types of the
theory of ethics according to some criteria.
The main concepts of ethics and morality:
The main concepts of ethics and morality: rigorism and eudemonism
As the first basis it is suggested to take the relation between “happiness and
moral obligation” Here we can differentiate rigorist and eudemonistic concepts of
morality.
Rigorist concept proclaims the autonomy of morality its independence from
people’s inclination to meet their empiric needs and realize practical interests.
According to their views, Morality is inside the human and being an important
part of our consciousness is at the same time superhuman, given by higher powers
“before any experience”.
Rigorist doctrine of ancient stoics as well as I. Kant’s state that a human is
able to and should carry out moral obligations under any particular circumstances,
because such obligations are the greatest value in themselves and to achieve
happiness a human must simply perform his moral duty. Other types of happiness
are secondary, not important, and sometimes even harmful. To strive to such
secondary happiness is immoral.
On the contrary to stoics, eudemonistic concepts, which name comes from the
Greek word “eudemonia”- happiness, consider that it is quite moral and meritoriously
to strive to happiness, as it is the duty of the human to himself and it makes good to
society.
Eudemonists can be divided into different groups according to their
understanding of happiness.
1 Hedonists who see happiness in pleasure
2 Utilitarians who consider that happiness is the best adaptation to
circumstances
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3 Philosophers who understand happiness as a self-realization of a person.
The main concepts of ethics and morality: humanism and authoritarism.
Another basis for differentiation of the morality doctrines is taking individual
consciousness or external authority as the highest ethical authority.
Concepts that consider individual consciousness to be the highest ethical
authority are usually called humanistic as a human himself takes all responsibility
for his thoughts, feelings and actions. Humanism is not individualism that neglects
the role of community, it sees the person in connection with other people, but
considers that neither God nor chief or community can deprive a person of the right
for his good will and full responsibility for this independent action.
Ethical theories that take external authority as the highest ethical authority are
called authoritarian ones. According to such ethics a person should obligatory
follow the rules, norms and moral laws existing in the society. A man has no moral
right to contradict and argue with the existing moral standards. Otherwise, he will be
morally or even physically condemned. As an example of authoritarian morality we
can take religious moral concepts that affirm the highest authority of God, to
contradict to which is a cardinal sin.
Empiric transcendental nature of ethics
The third criteria of differentiation of morality theories is empiric or
transcendental nature of ethics.
All religious ethical theories consider morality has supernatural source and
exists in the highest dimension as a categorical unchangeable moral imperative which
does not depend on particular historical conditions and changes.
Holistic and relativistic approach to the nature of ethics
Non-religious ethics thinks that morality is empiric, and humanity in its historic
development generates morality as an inevitable type of regulation of the
relationships in society. So, we can say that morality is constantly developing and
changing with the society. Such approach is called relativistic one.
There is also so-called holistic position that considers a person as an element
of integral unity - reasonable universe. And moral laws are the laws of the spirit and
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are absolute and wider than our empiric material world in which it is difficult to
observe and follow these rules.
Emotional and rational approach to the nature of ethics.
The next differentiation is based on the priority of rational mind or emotional
and volitional sphere. The examples of rational ethics are Socrates and Spinoza who
thought that morality in its essence is rational and rational mind can dominate human
passions and direct them.
Opposite position is taken by the followers of emotional and sensual source of
morality. The example of such position is Christianity in which a human is lead not
by limited rational mind, but by suffering and sympathizing heart.
Questions for self-control:
1. What are the functions of morality?
2. What are the main moral dilemmas of the humanity?
3. What are the main concepts of ethics and morality according to rigorism and
eudemonism.
4.What are the main concepts of ethics and morality according to humanism
and authoritarism?
5. Reveal the empiric and transcendental nature of ethics.
6.What des holistic and relativistic approach to the nature of ethics mean?
7.What is the essence of emotional and rational approaches to the nature of
ethics?
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LECTURE 1.3. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF ETHICAL
DOCTRINES
1.Overview. The ethical doctrines of the antiquity.
2.Middle ages. The essence of Christian morality.
3.Ethics of the New Time.
Overview. The ethical doctrines of the antiquity.
As ethics is the philosophical treatment of the moral order, its history does not
consist in narrating the views of morality entertained by different nations at differnt
times; this is properly the scope of the history of civilization, and of ethnology. The
history of ethics is concerned solely with the various philosophical systems which in
the course of time have been elaborated with reference to the moral order. Hence the
opinions advanced by the wise men of antiquity, such as Pythagoras (582-500 B.C.),
Heraclitus (535-475 B.C.), Confucius (558-479 B.C.), scarcely belong to the history
of ethics; for, though they proposed various moral truths and principles, they do so in
a dogmatic and didactic way, not in a philosophically systematic manner. Ethics
properly so-called is first met with among the Greeks, i.e. in the teaching of Socrates
(470- 399 B.C.).
Ethics of Ancient Greek Philosophy: Socrates, Plato, Aristotle
According to Socrates, the ultimate object of human activity is happiness, and
the necessary means to reach it, virtue. Since everybody necessarily seeks happiness,
no one is deliberately corrupt. All evil arises from ignorance, and the virtues are one
and all but so many kinds of prudence. Virtue can, therefore, be imparted by
instruction. The disciple of Socrates, Plato (427-347 B.C.) declares that the
“summum bonum” consists in the perfect imitation of God, the Absolute Good, an
imitation which cannot be fully realized in this life. Virtue enables man to order his
conduct, as he properly should, according to the dictates of reason, and acting thus he
becomes like the God. But Plato differed from Socrates in that he did not consider
virtue to consist in wisdom alone, but in justice, temperance, and fortitude as well,
these constituting the proper harmony of man's activities. In a sense, the State
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function is to train its citizens in virtue. For his ideal State he proposed the
community divided into “castas” and the public education of children. Though
Socrates and Plato had been to the fore in this mighty work and had contributed much
valuable material to the upbuilding of ethics; nevertheless, Plato's illustrious disciple,
Aristotle (384-322 B.C.), must be considered the real founder of systematic ethics.
With characteristic keenness he solved, in his ethical and political writings, most of
the problems with which ethics concerns itself. Unlike Plato, who began with ideas as
the basis of his observation, Aristotle chose rather to take the facts of experience as
his starting-point; these he analysed accurately, and sought to trace to their highest
and ultimate causes. He set out from the point that all men tend to happiness as the
ultimate object of all their endeavours, as the highest good, which is sought for its
own sake, and to which all other goods merely serve as means. This happiness cannot
consist in external goods, but only in the activity proper to human nature - not indeed
in such a lower activity of the vegetative and sensitive life as man possesses in
common with plants and brutes, but in the highest and most perfect activity of his
reason, which springs in turn from virtue. This activity, however, has to be exercised
in a perfect and enduring life. The highest pleasure is naturally bound up with this
activity, yet, to constitute perfect happiness, external good must also supply their
share. True happiness, though prepared for him by the gods as the object and reward
of virtue, can be attained only through a man's own individual exertion. With keen
penetration Aristotle proceeds to investigate in turn each of the intellectual and moral
virtues, and his treatment of them must, even at the present time, be regarded as in
great part correct. The nature of the State and of the family were, in the main, rightly
explained by him. The only pity is that his vision did not penetrate beyond this
earthly life, and that he never saw clearly the relations of man to God.
Ethics of Greek & Roman Philosophy: Hedonism, Epicurus, Cynics, Stoicism,
Skeptics
A more hedonistic (edone, "pleasure") turn in ethics begins with Democritus
(about 460-370 B.C.), who considers a perpetually joyous and cheerful disposition as
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the highest good and happiness of man. The means thereto is virtue, which makes us
independent of external goods -- so far as that is possible -- and which wisely
discriminates between the pleasures to be sought after and those that are to be
shunned. Pure Sensualism or Hedonism was first taught by Aristippus of Cyrene
(435-354 B.C.), according to whom the greatest possible pleasure, is the end and
supreme good of human endeavour. Epicurus (341-270 B.C.) differs from Aristippus
in holding that the largest sum total possible of spiritual and sensual enjoyments, with
the greatest possible freedom from displeasure and pain, is man's highest good.
Virtue is the proper directive norm in the attainmemt of this end. The Cynics,
Antisthenes (444-369 B.C.) and Diogenes of Sinope (414-324 B.C.), taught the direct
contrary of Hedonism, namely that virtue alone suffices for happiness, that pleasure
is an evil, and that the truly wise man is above human laws. This teaching soon
degenerated into haughty arrogance and open contempt for law and for the remainder
of men (Cynicism). The Stoics, Zeno (336-264 B.C.) and his disciples, Cleanthes,
Chrysippus, and others, strove to refine and perfect the views of Antisthenes. Virtue,
in their opinion, consist in man's living according to the dictates of his rational, and ,
as each one's individual nature is but a part of the entire natural order, virtue is,
therefore, the harmonious agreement with the Divine Reason, which shapes the whole
course of nature. Whether they conceived this relation of God to the world in a
pantheistic or a theistic sense, is not altogether clear. Virtue is to be sought for its
own sake, and it suffices for man's happiness. All other things are indifferent and are,
as circumstances require, to be striven after or shunned. The passions and affections
are bad, and the wise man is independent of them. Among the Roman Stoics were
Seneca (4 B.C. -- A.D. 65), Epictetus (born about A.D. 50), and the Emperor Marcus
Aurelius (A.D. 121-180). Cicero (106-43 B.C.) elaborated no new philosophical
system of his own, but chose those particular views from the various systems of
Grecian philosophy which appeared best to him. He maintained that moral goodness,
which is the general object of all virtues, consists in what is becoming to man as a
rational being as distinct from the brute. Actions are often good or bad, just or unjust,
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not because of human institutions or customs, but of their own intrinsic nature. Above
and beyond human laws, there is a natural law embracing all nations and all times,
the expression of the rational will of the Most High God, from obedience to which no
human authority can exempt us. Cicero gives an exhaustive exposition of the cardinal
virtues and the obligations connected with them; he insists especially on devotion to
the gods, without which human society could not exist. Parallel with the abovementioned Greek and Roman ethical systems runs a sceptical tendency, which rejects
eery natural moral law, bases the whole moral order on custom or human
arbitrariness, and frees the wise man from subjection to the ordinary precepts of the
moral order. This tendency was furthered by the Sophists, against whom Socrates and
Plato arrayed themselves, and later on by Carnea, Theodore of Cyrene, and others.
Ethics: History of Christian Morality
A new epoch in ethics begins with the dawn of Christianity. Ancient paganism
never had a clear and definite concept of the relation between God and the world, of
the unity of the human race, of the destiny of man, of the nature and meaning of the
moral law. Christianity first shed full light on these and similar questions. As St. Paul
teaches (Rom., ii, 24 sq.), God has written his moral law in the hearts of all men, even
of those outside the influence of Christian Revelation; this law manifests itself in the
conscience of every man and is the norm according to which the whole human race
will be judged on the day of reckoning. In consequence of their perverse inclinations,
this law had to a great extent become obscured and distorted among the pagans;
Christianity, however, restored it to its pristine integrity. Thus, too, ethics received its
richest and most fruitful stimulus. Proper ethical methods were now unfolded, and
philosophy was in a position to follow up and develop these methods by means
supplied from its own store-house. This course was soon adopted in the early ages of
the Church by the Fathers and ecclesiastical writers, as Justin Martyr, Irenaeus,
Tertullian, Clement of Alexandria, Origen, but especially the illustrious Doctors of
the Church, Ambrose, Jerome, and Augustine, who, in the exposition and defense of
Christian truth, made use of the principles laid down by the pagan philosophers. True,