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Файл:Английский язык для психологов. Учебное пособие
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Personality is an individual’s relatively stable characteristic patterns of
thought, emotion, behavior and the psychological mechanisms that support and
drive those patterns. The vast majority of investigations of the personality correlates of performance have used the Big Five taxonomy as the basis of their selection of predictors.
The Big Five model (or Five Factor Model) holds that personality comprises five dimensions: Openness to experience, conscientiousness, extroversion,
agreeableness and neuroticism. Of the five dimensions, conscientiousness appears to have the strongest relation to overall job performance across a wide variety of jobs.
Extraversion, sometimes referred to as surgency, is indicated by assertive,
energetic, and gregarious behaviours. Neuroticism is essentially equivalent to
emotional instability and can be seen in irritable and moody behaviours. Open-
ness to experience, sometimes referred to as intellect, indicates an individual’s
inquisitiveness, thoughtfulness, and propensity for intellectually challenging
tasks. Agreeableness is indicated in empathic, sympathetic, and kind behav-
iours. Finally, conscientiousness refers to an individual’s sense of responsibility
and duty as well as foresight.
The five-factor model was developed in the 1980s and ‘90s largely on the
basis of the lexical hypothesis, which suggested that the fundamental traits of
human personality have, over time, become encoded in language. According to
this hypothesis, the task of the personality psychologist is to cull the essential
traits of personality from the thousands of adjectives found in language that distinguish people according to their behavioral dispositions. In the second half of
the 20th century, personality psychologists in fact relied primarily on factor
analysis to discover and validate many of their trait theories. A large number of
personality psychologists concluded that the five-factor model represented the
most successful outcome of these efforts.
Three lines of research have provided support for the validity of the fivefactor model. First and foremost, the five factors have consistently emerged
from factor analyses conducted on numerous data sets composed of descriptive
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trait terms from a number of languages, including English, Chinese, and German. Second, twin and adoption studies have revealed a substantial genetic
component to the five factors. Third, the five factors have been applied across
the human life span. For instance, studies have shown that children use the five
factors when freely describing themselves and others, and parents’ naturallanguage descriptions of their children can be classified according to the five
factors. Individuals’ relative standings on the five factors have also been shown
to be fairly stable across much of the adult life span. More-recent efforts have
sought to explicitly treat the five factors as temperaments that are present from
birth, thus placing the five-factor model squarely in a developmental context.
Despite all of its success, the five-factor model has been roundly criticized
by a number of scholars. One issue concerns the absence of a comprehensive theory. Critics have also raised important methodological concerns, which
have revolved around the use of factor analysis as the primary tool of discovery
and validation for the five-factor method. Some researchers have argued that
three traits are sufficient: extraversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism (marked
by egocentric, cold, and impulsive behaviours). Others have argued that a larger
number of traits are needed to provide a comprehensive taxonomy.
The five-factor model will nonetheless likely continue into the foreseeable
future as a popular trait model of human personality. The five factors have
proved extremely useful to researchers and practitioners in a variety of areas,
such as the social, clinical, and industrial-organizational domains. The model has
unquestionably generated a great deal of research and discussion, and it has
played an important role in revitalizing the discipline of personality psychology.
Ex. 8. Say if the sentences are true or false according to the text. Correct
them if they are false.
1. Personality is an individual’s relatively stable characteristic patterns of
thought, emotion and behavior.
2. Personality psychology does not help people better understand the fac-
tors that play a role in personality.
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3. The five-factor model was developed in the 1980s and ‘90s largely on
the basis of the lexical hypothesis.
4. Children do not use the five factors when freely describing themselves
and others.
5. The five-factor model has not been criticized by a number of scholars.
6. Individuals’ relative standings on the five factors have also been shown
to be fairly stable across much of the adult life span.
7. The five-factor model will not continue into the foreseeable future as
a popular trait model of human personality.
8. The model has not played an important role in revitalizing the discipline
of personality psychology.
9. The study of personality focuses on five main areas.
2. Personality psychology is a branch of psychology that focuses on under-
standing different aspects of human personality.
Ex. 9. Read the text. What else trait of personality can you mention?
Personality as Traits
Personalities are characterized in terms of traits, which are relatively en-
during characteristics that influence our behavior across many situations. Per-
sonality traits such as introversion, friendliness, conscientiousness, honesty, and
helpfulness are important because they help explain consistencies in behavior.
The most popular way of measuring traits is by administering personality
tests on which people self-report about their own characteristics. Psychologists
have investigated hundreds of traits using the self-report approach, and this research has found many personality traits that have important implications for
behavior.
Ex. 10. Match each trait with examples of behaviors exhibited by people
who have these traits. Use description of these traits placed in column two of
53
the table. Begin sentences in column three using the following words and word
Trait
Description
Examples of behaviors
exhibited by people who
have the trait
Authoritarianism
A cluster of traits including
conventionalism, superstition,
toughness, and exaggerated
concerns with sexuality
… high in need for
achievement select tasks
that are not too difficult
to be sure they will succeed in them
Individualismcollectivism
Individualism is the tendency
to focus on oneself and one’s
personal goals; collectivism
is the tendency to focus on
one’s relations with others
… high in the need for
cognition pay more attention to arguments in ads
Internal versus
external locus of
control
In comparison to those with
an external locus of control,
people with an internal locus
of control are more likely to
believe that life events are
due largely to their own efforts and personal characteristics
… is associated with
a variety of positive psychological and health
outcomes
Need for
achievement
The desire to make significant accomplishments by
mastering skills or meeting
high standards
… a promotion orientation are more motivated
by goals of gaining money, whereas those with
prevention orientation are
more concerned about
losing money
Need for cognition
The extent to which people
engage in and enjoy effortful
cognitive activities
… are more likely to be
prejudiced, to conform to
leaders, and to display
rigid behaviors
combinations:
People with …, High self-esteem …, People with higher …, Sensation
seekers … , Authoritarians …, People high in self-consciousness …, Those … ,
People …, Individualists … .
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Regulatory focus
Refers to differences in the
motivations that energize behavior, varying from apromo-
tion orientation (seeking out
new opportunities) to apre-
vention orientation (avoiding
negative outcomes)
… spend more time preparing their hair and
makeup before they leave
the house
Selfconsciousness
The tendency to introspect
and examine one’s inner self
and feelings
… prefer to engage in behaviors that make them
stand out from others,
whereas collectivists prefer to engage in behaviors
that emphasize their similarity to others
Self-esteem
High self-esteem means
having a positive attitude toward oneself and one’s capabilities
… are more likely to engage in risky behaviors
such as extreme and risky
sports, substance abuse,
unsafe sex, and crime
Sensation seeking
The motivation to engage in
extreme and risky behaviors
… internal locus of control are happier, less depressed, and healthier in
comparison to those with
an external locus of control
Ex. 11. Read the text and translate it into Russian. Answer the questions.
THE SELF-REGULATION THEORY
The term self-regulation refers to a complex and dynamic set of processes
involved in setting and pursuing goals. It is commonly used to refer to a broad
set of theories that seek to describe, explain, and predict these goal-directed
processes.
A theory based in self-efficacy, self-regulation is “A theory of motivation
based on the setting of goals and the receipt of accurate feedback that is moni-
tored to enhance the likelihood of goal attainment”. It is presumed that people
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consciously set goals for themselves that guide and direct their behavior toward
the attainment of these goals. These people also engage in self-monitoring or
self-evaluation. Self-evaluation can be helped along if feedback is given when
a person is working on their goals because it can align how a person feels about
how they are doing to achieve a goal and what they are actually doing to
achieve their goals. In short, feedback provides an “error” message that a person who is off-track can reevaluate their goal.
The most fundamental aspect of self-regulation theory is the idea that
much of human behavior is directed toward accomplishing goals.
Goals can differ from one another in many ways. For example, they may
be assigned by others (e.g., by one’s supervisor), they may be self-set by the individual, or they may be determined by some combination of the two (e.g.,
jointly set). Goals can vary in both difficulty and specificity, as well as content.
They can be near-term (proximal) goals or long-term (distal) goals. Goals can
even vary in the extent to which one is consciously aware that the goal is guiding behavior. All of these characteristics have important influences on cognition, affect, and behavior.
One of the most consistent findings (although it is not without exception) is
that difficult, specific goals often result in high levels of performance.
The increased understanding of goal-related processes provides valuable
information about how motivational interventions can best be implemented.
Most theories of self-regulation propose that goals are arranged hierarchically in a series of means-ends relationships.
Goal hierarchies are highly complex. Rather than having a strict one-to-one
relationship between higher-level and lower-level goals, a higher-level goal, or
end, can often be obtained by achieving several alternative, lower-level goals,
or means. Likewise, a given lower-level goal or means can often serve many
higher-level goals or ends. Goal hierarchies are also highly individualized. Each
individual’s hierarchy may be distinct and change over time. Some theorists
postulate that an important determinant of individual personality is the goals
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that exist (or the relative importance of such goals) near the top of their hierarchy.
Such goals are often referred to as approach goals because individuals seek
to move toward these states. However, avoidance goals are also powerful influences on behavior, representing undesired future states that individuals wish to
avoid. For a variety of reasons, the self-regulatory processes resulting from approach and avoidance goals differ in subtle but very important ways.
One important way in which approach and avoidance goals differ is in the
affect (i.e., emotions) that arises from successful and unsuccessful pursuit. In
short, success at an approach goal often leads to excitement or elation, whereas
success at an avoidance goal often leads to relief or relaxation. Failure at an approach goal often leads to sadness or depression, whereas failure at an avoidance goal often leads to anxiety or nervousness. Because emotions can have
important influences on the way individuals perceive and react to the world
around them, the distinction between approach and avoidance self-regulation is
of great practical importance.
Despite the vast insights and many practical applications that have
emerged from the research on self-regulation, researchers are only just beginning to understand all of the implications of this complex, dynamic, and individualized process. Nonetheless, it appears clear that the implications are many,
and increased understanding in this area will likely yield further improvements
in effectiveness in the workplace and beyond.
1. Who engages in self-monitoring or self-evaluation?
2. What is the most fundamental aspect of self-regulation theory?
3. The difficult, specific goal often results in high levels of performance,
doesn’t it?
4. What can you say about goal hierarchies?
5. Can emotions have important influences on the way individuals perceive
and react to the world around them? What do you think?
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Ex. 12. Match the words from column A with their equivalents in column B.
A B 1)
to enhance
a)
basic
2)
likelihood
b)
mistake
3)
actual
c)
matter
4)
error
d)
ranking
5)
fundamental
e)
to improve
6)
individual
f)
different
7)
content
g)
true
8)
hierarchy
h)
difference
9)
alternative
i)
personality
10)
distinction
j)
probability
Ex. 13. Complete the sentences using the following words and word com-
binations:
Self-evaluation; higher-level goals; themselves; hierarchically; toward; be-
havior; difficulty and specificity; emotions; goal; self-monitoring.
1. People consciously set goals for … .
2. People also engage in … or self-evaluation.
3. … can be helped along if feedback is given.
4. Feedback provides an “error” message that a person who is off-track can
reevaluate their ... .
5. Much of human behavior is directed … accomplishing goals.
6. Goals can vary in both …, as well as content.
7. Most theories of self-regulation propose that goals are arranged … in
a series of means-ends relationships.
react to the world around them.
8. Given lower-level goal or means can often serve many … or ends.
9. An avoidance goals are also powerful influences on … .
10. … can have important influences on the way individuals perceive and
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Ex. 14. Read the text and translate it into Russian.
PERSONALITY TESTING IN EMPLOYEE SELECTION
Personality is a potentially important predictor of work behavior. Matching
people to jobs matters, because when people do not fit with their jobs or the
company, they are more likely to leave, costing companies as much as a person’s annual salary to replace them. In job interviews, companies try to assess
a candidate’s personality and the potential for a good match, but interviews are
only as good as the people conducting them. In fact, interviewers are not particularly good at detecting the best trait that predicts performance: conscientiousness. One method some companies use to improve this match and detect the
people who are potentially good job candidates is personality testing. Companies using them believe that these tests improve the effectiveness of their selection and reduce turnover. For example, Overnight Transportation in Atlanta
found that using such tests reduced their on-the-job delinquency by 50-100 %.
Yet, are these methods good ways of selecting employees? Experts have
not yet reached an agreement on this subject and the topic is highly controversial. Some experts believe, based on data, that personality tests predict performance and other important criteria such as job satisfaction. However, we must
understand that how a personality test is used influences its validity.
In employee selection, one complicating factor is that people filling out the
survey do not have a strong incentive to be honest. In fact, they have a greater
incentive to guess what the job requires and answer the questions to match what
they think the company is looking for. As a result, the rankings of the candidates who take the test may be affected by their ability to fake. Some experts
believe that this is a serious problem. Others point out that even with faking, the
tests remain valid – the scores are still related to job performance. It is even
possible that the ability to fake is related to a personality trait that increases
success at work, such as social monitoring. This issue raises potential questions
regarding whether personality tests are the most effective way of measuring
candidate personality.
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Scores are not only distorted because of some candidates faking better than
1)
annual
a)
an employee
2)
personality
b)
ability
3)
job
c)
potential
4)
to take on
d)
salary
5)
accuracy
e)
effectiveness
6)
human
f)
test
7)
behavioral
g)
measures
others. Do we even know our own personality? Are we the best person to ask
this question? How supervisors, coworkers, and customers see our personality
matters more than how we see ourselves. Therefore, using self-report measures
of performance may not be the best way of measuring someone’s personality.
There is another problem with using these tests: How good a predictor of
performance is personality anyway? According to one estimate, personality only explains about 10-15 % of variation in job performance. Our performance at
work depends on so many factors, and personality does not seem to be the key
factor for performance. In fact, cognitive ability (your overall mental intelligence) is a much more powerful influence on job performance, and instead of
personality tests, cognitive ability tests may do a better job of predicting who
will be good performers. Personality is a better predictor of job satisfaction and
other attitudes, but screening people out on the assumption that they may be
unhappy at work is a challenging argument to make in the context of employee
selection.
In any case, if you decide to use these tests for selection, you need to be
aware of their limitations. Relying only on personality tests for selection of an
employee is a bad idea, but if they are used together with other tests such as
tests of cognitive abilities, better decisions may be made. The company should
ensure that the test fits the job and actually predicts performance. This process
is called validating the test. The company should also make sure that the test
does not discriminate against people on the basis of sex, race, age, disabilities,
and other legally protected characteristics.
Ex. 15. Make word combinations.
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