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Файл:Language. Английский язык для филологов. Учебное пособие
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it?; Isn’t it still raining?; Shut the door, if you don’t mind; Don’t be long,
will you? Languages use their resources differently for these purposes, but,
generally speaking, each seems to be equally flexible structurally. The
principal resources are word order, word form, and, in speech, pitch and
stress placement. In English, as an example, a word or phrase can be high-
lighted by being placed first in the sentence when it would not normally occur there: compare he can’t bear loud noises with loud noises he can’t bear
or loud noises, he can’t bear them. The object noun or noun phrase can also
be put first by making the sentence passive; this allows the original subject
to be omitted if one does not know or does not want to refer to an agent: the
town was destroyed (by the revolutionaries). Within and together with all
these possibilities, almost any word can be made contrastively prominent in
spoken language by being stressed (spoken more loudly) or by being uttered
on a higher pitch, and very often these two are combined: I asked you for
RED roses (not yellow); I meant it for YOU (not her); HE knows nothing
about it (someone else may). Prominence is especially associated with into-
nation, itself an important carrier of structural meaning in speech. One may
state facts, ask questions, and give instructions with a variety of intonations
indicating, along with visible gestures, different attitudes, feelings, and social and personal relations between speaker and hearer.
The possibilities of expressing structural meanings are a highly important part of any language. They are acquired along with the rest of one’s first
language in childhood and are learned more slowly and with more difficulty
in mastering a second or later language. Scholars continue to analyze these
resources as they pursue a full understanding of all the semantic functions
performed by means of these resources.
Note: the linear (time) dimension of speaking and the limited memory
span of the human brain – линейное (временное) измерение говорения и
ограниченный объем памяти человеческого мозга.
III. Practice (Активизация лексики). Выполните следующие упражнения.
1. а) Объясните значения выделенных слов из текста урока.
б) Найдите в тексте урока словосочетания, соответствующие
русским эквивалентам:
многообразный; сбивающий с толку; часть, которая должна быть
полезной; содержать; быть условно названным; быть выделенным;
быть грамматически безразличным; может быть усилена; линейное
(временное) измерение; линейный поток сценариев; постоянство; длина предложения; сложность предложения; юридические и законодательные документы; читать вслух; предписывать или запрещать; какой-
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либо образ действия; смягчать или модифицировать; объектное суще-
1. object
a. impossible to understand; perplexing
2. purpose
b. having the power to make laws
3. baffling
c. a material thing that can be seen and touched
4. legal
d. leave out or exclude (someone or something
5. legislative
e. the reason for which something is done or created or
for which something exists
6. omit
f. relating to the law
1. object
a. advantage
2. multifarious
b. useful
3. serviceable
c. invariability
4. purpose
d. article
5. permanence
e. lawful
6. legal
f. manifold, various
1. unintelligible
a. weaken
2. allow
b. by mistake
3. reinforce
c. indifferent
4. on purpose
d. comprehensible
5. flexible
e. forbid
6. different
f. rigid
ствительное; именная фраза; быть опущенным; видное место; добиваться; полное понимание; семантическая функция.
2. Приведите в соответствие термины из левой колонки с их
толкованием из правой колонки:
3. Закончите предложения, употребляя слова из упражнения 2:
1. The building is no longer needed for its original _________.
2. The crime is a _________ mystery for the police.
3. What I did was perfectly _________.
4. He squinted his eyes as though he were studying an _________ on the
horizon.
5. Today's hearing was just the first step in the __________ process.
6. He modestly ________ to mention that he was a pole-vault champion.
4. Сопоставьте каждое слово из левой колонки с его синонимом
из правой колонки:
5. Сопоставьте каждое слово из левой колонки с его антонимом
из правой колонки:
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6. Составьте словосочетания с данными прилагательными и су-
1. certain
a. carrier
2. grammatical
b. complexity
3. written
c. meaning
4. oral
d. contexts
5. sentence
e. pronunciation
6. important
f. texts
ществительными
IV. Checklist (Упражнения на понимание содержания текста)
1. Просмотрите текст о структурных или грамматических
значениях в языке еще раз и ответьте на вопросы:
1.What are the whole object and purpose of language?
2.Why is the study of meaning the most difficult part of the study of
language?
3.Why is not the definition of language as the expression of thought
considered serviceable?
. Переведите их на русский язык:
4.What parts does the meaning of any sentence comprise?
5.What distinguishes subject and object in the English sentence?
6.What are the formal resources of any language for making distinctions
in the structural meanings of sentences?
7.What different sentence structures to state facts can all languages employ?
8.What principal resources can languages use to soften or modify dis-
tinctions in sentence structures?
9.Why is prominence especially associated with intonation? What can
one express with intonation?
2. Какие предложения верны (T), а где допущены ошибки (F)?
Исправьте неверные утверждения.
1. Languages have developed to meet the needs of communication.
________
2. Language is the expression of thought. ________
3. The two sentences containing exactly the same words are similar in
meaning. _______
4. Different word orders distinguish what are conventionally called sub-
ject and object in different languages. _______
5. Legislative documents that are virtually unintelligible. _______
6. The possibilities of expressing structural meanings are learned with
no difficulty in mastering a second or later language. _______
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3. Придумайте к каждому параграфу текста заголовок.
Действие и время
глагола придаточного
предложения
Перевод глагола
придат. предложе-
ния на русский язык
Примеры
Одновременное (Past
Indefinite или Past
Progressive)
Настоящим
временем
He said that he worked in
hospital. Он сказал, что
он работает в больнице.
V. Additional Reading and Tasks (Дополнительные тексты и задания)
1. Прочитайте текст об обозначении чисел в арифметике:
The best example of infinite precision available from a strictly limited
lexical stock is in the field of arithmetic. Between any two whole numbers a
further fractional or decimal number may always be inserted, and this may
go on indefinitely: between 10 and 11, 10 1/2 (10.5), 10 1/4 (10.25), 10 1/8
(10.125), and so on. Thus, mathematicians and physical scientists are able to
achieve any desired degree of quantitative precision appropriate to their purposes, and hence the importance of quantitative statements in the sciences;
any thermometric scale contains far more distinctions of temperature than
are reasonably available in the vocabulary of a language (hot, warm, cool,
tepid, cold, and so on). For this reason mathematics has been described as
the “ideal use of language.” This characterization, however, applies to relatively few areas of expression, and for many purposes in everyday life the
very imprecision of natural languages is the source of their strength and
adaptability.
2. Подготовьте сообщение о числительных в английском языке,
лексических особенностях называния числа 0 в разных контекстах.
VI. Grammar in Use (Практическая Грамматика)
СОГЛАСОВАНИЕ ВРЕМЕН (SEQUENCE OF TENSES)
Таблица 7
Согласование времен (sequence of tenses)
(в дополнительном придаточном предложении
при главном предложении в прошедшем времени)
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Предшествующее (Past
Perfect)
Прошедшим
временем
He said that he had worked
in hospital before. Он
сказал, что он работал в
больнице раньше.
Будущее в прошедшем
(shall→should;
will→would)
Будущим
временем
He said that he would work
in hospital. Он сказал, что
он будет работать в
больнице.
Прямая речь→Косвенная речь
Прямая речь→Косвенная речь
this→that
these→those
now→then
here→there
today→that day
yesterday→the day before
the day before yesterday→two days
before tomorrow→the next day
the day after tomorrow→two days
later ago→before
next→the next / the following
Глагол
Одновременное
действие
Предшествующее
действие
Будущее
в прошедшем
Ask
Asked/was asking
Had asked/had been asking
Should/would ask
Be
Was/were
Had been
Should/would be
Have
Had
Had had
Should/would have
Do you play chess?
He asked me if/ whether I played chess.
Is he a student?
Mary wondered if/ whether he was a student
Замена местоимений и обстоятельств времени
при преобразовании прямой речи в косвенную речь
ГЛАГОЛЬНЫЕ ФОРМЫ ПРИ СОГЛАСОВАНИИ ВРЕМЕН
В ДОПОЛНИТЕЛЬНОМ ПРИДАТОЧНОМ ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИИ
Таблица 8
Передача вопросительных предложений в косвенной речи
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Has she done her work?
I asked Kate if/ whether she had done her
work.
What were you discuss-
ing?
She asked them what they had been discuss-
ing.
Why have you done it?
He wanted to know why he had done it.
When will she come?
Henry inquired when she would come.
Передача побудительных предложений в косвенной речи
Come to the blackboard! She told him to come to the blackboard.
Don’t open the window! She asked him not to open the window.
Упражнения
1) Перепишите отрывок из работы знаменитого филолога
Отто Джесперсена в косвенной речи, произведя необходимые изменения.
First, I shall mention the sound system. The English consonants are well
defined; voiced and voiceless consonants stand over against each other in
neat symmetry, and precisely pronounced. You have none of those indistinct
or half-slurred consonant or a vowel-glide that meets the ear. There is much
less modification of a constant by the surrounding vowels than in some other
languages, thus none of that palatalization of consonants which gives an insinuating grace consonants which gives an insinuating grace to such languages as Russian. The vowel sounds, too, are comparatively independent of
their surroundings.
2) Восстановите прямую речь в следующих предложениях.
1.Otto Jespersen wondered if any one could be in doubt that even if
such language sound pleasantly and be full of music and harmony, the total
impression was childlike and effeminate. One didn’t expect much vigour or
energy in a people speaking such a language; it seemed adopted only to inhabitants of sunny regions where the soil required scarcely any labour or the
part of man to stamp of a hard struggle against nature and against fellowcreatures. Jespersen found the same phonetic structure in such languages as
Italian and Spanish; but confirmed that his Germanic tongues were different.
He stressed that English had no each of words ending in two or more consonants, – he was speaking of course, of the pronunciation, not of spelling –
age, hence, wealth tent, tempt, tempts, months, helped, feasts, etc.
3) Используйте необходимую форму глагола.
1.Cowperwood realized... that he __ making a very remarkable confession. (is, was) (Dreiser)
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2. She scarcely realized what __ happening, (is, was) (Dreiser)
3. Then all at once he remembered what the program __ be. (will,
would) (Warren)
4. Little Hans was very much distressed at times, as he was afraid his
flowers __ think he — forgotten them. (will, would; has, had) (Wilde)
5. Rosa told herself that this __ the day that __ decide her fate. (is, was,
will, would) (Murdoch)
6. She realised that he __ trying to convey to her that he __ lonely. (is,
was; is, was) (Dreiser)
7. Mrs. Sohlberg felt that this __ going to be a wonderful evening, (is,
was) (Dreiser)
8. He felt sure he __ sleep now. (shall, should) (Eliot)
9. He thought how beautifull and serene their life __ be. (will, would)
(Warren)
10. I was thinking that it __ be interesting to start a little gas company in
one of these outlying villages that __ growing so fast, and see if we __ not
make some money out of it. (may, might; are, were; can, could) (Dreiser)
11. Each fresh noise crept through her senses like an enemy who __
found a gap in the walls of a beleaguered city. (has, had) (Bennett)
12. Lunch came just as they were off Sheerness. He didn't feel so hungry as he thought he __ be. (shall, should) (Jerome K. Jerome)
13. He knew that in a week or two, at most a month, the actual campaign __ begin. (will, would) (Mailer)
14. When I found Mr. Bennett __ left his house, I thought I __ find him
here. Of course, he had told me that he __ consult you. (has, had; shall,
should; will, would) (Conan Doyle)
15. Brother Sumpter asked Jack Harrick how he __ to day. (is, was)
(Warren)
16. We got to Waterloo at eleven and asked where the eleven five __
from. The porter who took our things thought it __ go from number two
platform, while another porter __ heard a rumour that it __ go from number
one. The station-master, on the other hand, was convinced that it __ start
from the local. We went upstairs and asked the traffic superintendent, and he
told us that he __ just seen it at number three platform, (starts, started; will,
would; has, had; will, would; will, would; has, had) (Jerome K. Jerome)
17. I was thinking that if any stranger __ in here now, he __ take us for
man and wife, (come, came; will, would) (Shaw)
18. He knew that he __ been to college. (has, had) (Warren)
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UNIT 8
LEXICAL MEANING
ЛЕКСИЧЕСКОЕ ЗНАЧЕНИЕ
I. Warm-Up Activities (Предтекстовые упражнения)
1. Обсудите следующие вопросы со своим партнёром:
– What is lexical meaning?
– What is more important to know in studying a foreign language: its
grammar and a few important words or as many words as you can remember
and no grammar at all?
– Do you agree with the statement that languages in part create the
world in which humans live?
2. Key Words. Запомните слова, которые вам понадобятся при
работе с материалом данного урока:
1. lexical item – элемент лексического (синтаксического) анализа,
лексема...;
2. familiar [fə'mɪlɪə] знакомый; привычный; хорошо известный;
близкий; фамильярный;
3. sensible ['sen(t)sɪbl] разумный; благоразумный; здравый;
здравомыслящий; чувствительный; ощутимый; чувствующий;
целесообразный;
4. open-ended [ˌəup(ə)n'endɪd] 1) не ограниченный временем 2)
неокончательный; допускающий изменения, поправки (о предложении,
проекте) 3) неограниченный; свободный; не связанный условиями;
5. commitment [kə'mɪtmənt] обязательство; приверженность;
преданность; заинтересованность;
6. delusion [dɪ'luːʒ(ə)n] заблуждение; галлюцинация; мания; бред;
обман;
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7. assumption [ə'sʌmpʃ(ə)n] предположение; допущение; Успение;
презумпция; присвоение; принятие на себя;
8. vertebrate ['vɜːtɪbreɪt] позвоночное;
9. quality ['kwɔlətɪ] качество; качественный; свойство; достоинство;
сорт; добротность; класс; род; тембр;
10. consequence ['kɔn(t)sɪkwən(t)s/ последствие; следствие; вывод;
значение; последовательность;
11. onomatopoeic(al) [ˌɔnəˌmætə'piːɪk((ə)l)] звукоподражательный;
12. insofar [ˌɪnsə'fɑː] насколько, в той мере, до таких пределов;
13. discrete [dɪ'skriːt] дискретный; прерывистый; прерывный;
14. tactile ['tæktaɪl] тактильный; осязательный;
15. tacitly [ˈtasɪtlɪ]1) молчаливо; подразумеваемым образом; 2)
автоматически;
16. bulbous ['bʌlbəs] 1) луковичный (выращенный из луковицы или
дающий луковицу); 2) напоминающий луковицу, луковицеобразный;
выпуклый;
17. assume [ə's(j)uːm] предполагать; принимать; допускать;
полагать; принимать на себя; обретать; присваивать;
18. assumption [ə'sʌmpʃ(ə)n] предположение; допущение; Успение;
презумпция; присвоение; принятие на себя;
19. loudness – громкость;
20. regressive [rɪ'gresɪv] регрессивный; обратный;
21. evidence ['evɪd(ə)n(t)s] доказательство; свидетельство; улика;
данные; свидетельствовать; подтверждение; основание; доказывать;
очевидность; довод;
22. akin [ə'kɪn] 1) родственный, близкий, родной; 2) похожий,
сходный, такой же как;
23. quote [kwəut] кавычка; цитировать; приводить; ссылаться;
котировать;
24. inflection [ɪn'flekʃ(ə)n] перегиб; точка перегиба; модуляция;
25. word inflection – изменение слова.
II. Reading (Чтение). Прочитайте и переведите текст.
The other component of sentence meaning is word meaning, the individual meanings of the words in a sentence, as lexical items. The concept of
word meaning is a familiar one. Dictionaries list words and in one way or
another state their meanings. It is regarded as a sensible question to ask of
any word in a language, “What does it mean?” This question, like many others about language, is easier to ask than to answer.
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It is through lexical resources that languages maintain the flexibility
their open-ended commitments demand. Every language has a vocabulary
of many thousands of words, though not all are in active use, and some are
known only to relatively few speakers. Perhaps the commonest delusion in
considering vocabularies is the assumption that the words of different languages, or at least their nouns, verbs, and adjectives, label the same inventory of things, processes, and qualities in the world but unfortunately label
them with different labels from language to language. If this were so, translation would be easier than it is; but the fact that translation, though often
difficult, is possible indicates that people are talking about similar worlds of
experience in their various languages.
Languages in part create the world in which humans live. Of course,
many words do name existing bits and pieces of earth and heaven: stone,
tree, dog, woman, star, cloud, and so on. Others, however, do not so much
pick out what is there as classify it and organize one’s relations with it and
with each other with regard to it. A range of living creatures are mammals or
are vertebrates, because people classify them in these ways, among others,
by applying selected criteria and so determining the denotation of the
words mammal and vertebrate. Plants are vegetables or weeds according as
groups of people classify them, and different plants are included and excluded by such classifications in different languages and different cultures.
Time and its associated vocabulary (year, month, day, hour, minute,
yesterday, tomorrow, and so on) do not refer to discrete sections of reality
but enable people to impose some sort of order, in agreement with others,
on the processes of change observed in the world. Personal pronouns pick
out the persons speaking, spoken to, and spoken about; but some languages
make different distinctions in their pronouns from those made in English.
For example, in Malay, kita, which means “we,” including the person addressed, is distinct from kami, a form for “we” that includes the speaker and
a third person or persons but excludes the person addressed. In Japanese and
in several other languages, a variety of words denoting the first and second
persons indicate additionally the observed or intended social relationship of
those involved.
Other word meanings are even more language- and culture-bound and,
in consequence, harder to translate. Right and wrong, theft, inheritance,
property, debt, sin, and crime are just a few of the words regulating one’s
conduct and relations with one’s fellows in a particular culture. Translation
becomes progressively harder as one moves to languages of more remote cultures, and it has been said that it requires “a unification of cultural context.”
Insofar as a person’s understanding of the Universe and of the relations be-
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