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Файл:Language. Английский язык для филологов. Учебное пособие
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tween that person and other people is closely linked with the language used, it
must be assumed, and the evidence confirms this assumption, that children
progressively acquire such understanding along with their language.
The great majority of word shapes bear no direct relation to their lexical meanings. If they did, languages would be more alike. What are called
onomatopoeic words have some similarity in shape through different languages: French coucou, English cuckoo, and German Kuckuck directly
mimic the call of the bird. English dingdong and German bim-bam share
several sound features in common that partially resemble the clanging of
bells. More abstractly, some direct “sound symbolism” has been seen between certain sound types and visual or tactile shapes. Most people agree
that the made-up word oomboolu would better designate a round, bulbous
object than a spiky one. In addition, the appropriateness of the vowel sound
represented by ee in English wee and i in French petit and Italian piccolo for
expressing things of small size has been traced in several languages.
All this, however, is a very small part of the vocabulary of any language. For by far the largest number of words in a spoken language, there is
no direct association between sound and meaning. English horse, German
Pferd, French cheval, Latin equus, and Greek hippos are all unrelated to the
animal so named, except that these words are so used in the languages concerned. This is what is meant by the term arbitrary in the second definition
of language quoted at the beginning of this article. Vocabulary has to be
largely arbitrary, because the greater part of the world and of human ex-
perience is not directly associated with any kind of noise, or even with specific gestures or hand shapes.
The relations between sentence structure and structural meanings are
also largely arbitrary and tacitly conventional. The use of loudness and stress
for emphasis in spoken languages as well as certain linguistic indications of
anger and excitement are akin to nonlinguistic expressions of emotion and
are somewhat similar across language divisions. But actual intonations and
features such as word order, word inflection, and grammatical particles, used
in maintaining distinctions in structural meaning, differ markedly in differ-
ent languages.
III. Practice (Активизация лексики). Выполните следующие упражнения.
1. а) Объясните значения выделенных слов из текста урока.
б) Найдите в тексте урока словосочетания, соответствующие
русским эквивалентам:
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быть знакомым; рассматриваться как; предположение; ярлык; пе-
1. regressive
a. practical contact with and observation of facts or events
2. experience
b. a sum of money that is owed or due
3. resemble
c. a feeling of great enthusiasm and eagerness
4. debt
d. returning to a former or less developed state; characterized by regression
5. excitement
e. cause or enable (a condition or situation) to continue
6. maintain
f. have a similar appearance to or qualities in common
with (someone or something);
1. directly
a. look or seem like
2. conventional
b. notion
3. resemble
c. heritage
4. inheritance
d. start
5. concept
e. traditional
6. beginning
f. exactly
речень вещей; частично; создавать мир; выделять; млекопитающие; позвоночные; отдельные участки реальности; давать возможность людям;
налагать какой-то порядок; вследствие; постольку; доказательство;
иметь некоторое сходство; по форме; звон колоколов; визуальные или
тактильные формы; безусловно; соответствующие языки; цитировать;
быть произвольным и традиционным по умолчанию; быть сродни нелингвистическим выражениям.
2. Приведите в соответствие термины из левой колонки с их
толкованием из правой колонки:
3. Закончите предложения, употребляя слова из упражнения 2:
1. Some people ___________ their dogs.
2. This ____________ behaviour is more common in boys.
3. I paid off my __________.
4. He had learned his lesson by painful __________.
5. Her cheeks were flushed with __________.
6. The need to __________ close links between industry and schools.
4. Сопоставьте каждое слово из левой колонки с его синонимом
из правой колонки:
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5. Сопоставьте каждое слово из левой колонки с его антонимом
1. include
a. regressively
2. remote
b. similar
3. anger
c. close
4. progressively
d. exclude
5. different
e. nonlinguistic
6. linguistic
f. pleasure
1. sensible
a. labels
2. lexical
b.expressions
3. different
c. question
4. remote
d.items
5. nonlinguistic
e. meaning
6. structural
f. cultures
из правой колонки:
6. Составьте словосочетания с данными прилагательными и су-
ществительными
IV. Checklist (Упражнения на понимание содержания текста)
1. Просмотрите текст о лексическом значении еще раз и
ответьте на вопросы:
1. What is word meaning?
2. What is the commonest delusion in considering vocabularies?
3. How can words create the world where people live?
4. What for do people create abstract vocabulary?
5. Why in your opinion some word meanings are harder to translate?
. Переведите их на русский язык:
6. How do children acquire understanding of the universe and the rela-
tions between people?
7. What do you know about onomatopoeic words?
8. There is no direct association between sound of the word and its
meaning, is there?
9. Is there any relation between sentence structure and structural meaning?
2. Какие предложения верны (T), а где допущены ошибки (F)?
Исправьте неверные утверждения.
1. The words of different languages, or at least their nouns, verbs, and
adjectives, label the same inventory of things, processes, and qualities in the
world. _________
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2. The same plants are included and excluded in different languages and
different cultures. ________
3. Languages make no different distinctions in their personal pronouns.
________
4. Word meanings are even more language- and culture-bound and, in
consequence, easier to translate.
5. Some direct “sound symbolism” has been seen between certain sound
types and visual or tactile shapes. _________
6. Vocabulary has to be largely arbitrary, because the greater part of the
world and of human experience is not directly associated with any kind of
noise, or even with specific gestures or hand shapes. ________
3. Составьте план текста урока. Выпишите к каждому пункту
плана ключевое предложение из текста.
4. Передайте содержание текста, придерживаясь своего плана.
V. Additional Reading and Tasks (Дополнительные тексты и
задания)
1. Прочитайте текст об обозначении цвета в разных языках:
Colour words get their meanings from their mutual contrasts. The field
of visually discriminable hues is very large and goes far beyond the resources of any vocabulary as it is normally used. Children learn the central
or basic colour words of their language fairly early and at the same time;
such terms as red and green are normally learned before subdivisions such as
crimson and scarlet or chartreuse. It is well known that languages make their
primary divisions of the spectrum of colours in different places; Japanese
aoi covers many of the hues referred to in English by green and blue, while
blue covers much of the range of the two Russian words goluboy and siny.
While the actual colour vocabularies of languages differ, however, research
by Brent Berlin and Paul Kay in the 1960s sought to show that “there exist
universally for humans eleven basic perceptual color categories” that serve
as reference points for the colour words of a language, whatever number
may be regularly employed at any time. The claim remains controversial.
Ordinarily, considerable areas of indeterminate designation in colour
vocabulary and in other fields are tolerated; between red and purple and between purple and blue, there are hues that one would hesitate to assign
firmly to one or the other and on which there would be considerable personal disagreement. When greater precision than normal is required–as, for
example, in listing paint or textile colours–all kinds of additional terms can
be brought into service to supplement the usual vocabulary: off-white, light
cream, lemon, blush pink, and so on.
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2. Найдите в словарях устойчивые выражения или фразы с использованием обозначения цвета на английском и на родном языке.
Переведите их на русский язык. Какие значения передают цвета в
этих фразах? Проанализируйте, есть ли схожие значения в них?
Чем отличается восприятие цвета в разных языках? Подготовьте
небольшое сообщение на английском языке на эту тему.
VI. Grammar in Use (Практическая Грамматика)
ПРЕДЛОГИ
1) Вставьте предлоги from, of, in, at, for, between.
1.Philology in the general sense derives … the historical development
of Classical Philology
2.Cognitive Philology studies how narratives emerge … so called natural conversation and selective process which leads to the rise … literary
standards … storytelling
3.Cognitive Philology provides the scientific ground … multimedia
critical editions … literally texts
4.Similarities between Sanskrit and European languages where first
noted … the early 16th century
5.Radical Philology diverges … mainstream philology in its understanding of that relationship … textual scholarship and literary interpretation
6.There are three main schools of thought … formal linguistics
7.It is what we are usually taught … school
8.People have an immense amount of very organize but almost entirely
unconscious knowledge … language
9. This knowledge is what we use when we organize our thoughts …
expression and when we understand what people are saying … us
10. We do these things so rapidly that we rarely pay attention … these
remarkable processes
11. Linguistics is the study … all aspects of human language.
12. There are over 6000 languages on the world. Most of them have
never been property described or even written …, and many of them will
disappear … the earth … the next fifty years.
13. Documenting these languages is important … many reasons, including our desire to answer the fundamental questions “Why and in what ways
are all languages similar?” and “Why and in what ways do they differ?”
14. Linguistics study how languages make it possible to express our
ideas and feelings … the other, how different styles and dialects develop,
and how they are used … everyday communication and formal settings.
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15. People have an immense amount of very organized but almost entirely unconscious knowledge … language.
16. This knowledge is what we use when we organize our thoughts …
expression and we use when we understand what people are saying to us.
17. We do these things so rapidly that we rarely pay attention … these
remarkable processes – until we try to learn a new language.
2) Укажите морфологический состав следующих предлогов: in,
below, with regard to, during, concerning, till, in front of, without, behind,
under, in view of, outside, off, into, until, across, according to, with, along,
up, inside, out of, owing to, at, regarding.
3) Вставьте предлоги и по возможности уточняйте их значение.
1. The life __ the Dutch settlement now began to be built into the life __
the American nation. This these people did consciously and __ their own
will, although there were — the older ones some who longed, as did even
Mijnheer Stulting __ times, __ the comfort and security __ his old home. It had
been a sad blow __ him when the pastor died __ the early years and lie was
never again satisfied altogether __ any who tried to take his place. (Buck)
2. Bitterly tired, he lay down __ the sofa __ his fur coat and fell asleep.
(Galsworthy)
3. __ the appointed time __ the evening Mr. Micawber reappeared.
(Dickens)
4. They were __ earnest conversation. __ time __ time they would halt
and one __ them would, it seemed, explain something __ the other, who __
turn would nod his head sagely. (Clark)
5. There was only one other event __ this hall-year,... that made an impression __ me which still survives. (Dickens)
6. He reached his house __ midnight. (Galsworthy)
7. He looked __ his watch. __ half an hour the doctor would be back.
(Galsworthy)
8. Bing went __ the soldier, who had the serious face __ a child thrown
__ the world too soon. (Heym)
9. He stared __ her __ amazement. He had forgotten that she was ignorant __ his story and __ his flight __ Carlion. (Greene)
10. __ these studies the excellent Mrs. O'Dowd was __ great assistance
__ him. (Thackeray)
11. A child __ 1901, he had come __ consciousness when his country,
just over that bad attack __ scarlet fever, was preparing __ the Liberal revival __ 1906. (Galsworthy)
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12. Mrs. Reed's hands still lay __ her work inactive, her eyes __ ice con-
UNIT 9
NEOLOGISMS
НЕОЛОГИЗМЫ
tinued to dwell freezingly __ mine. (Ch. Bronte)
13. When __ the first week __ December he decided to go __ Paris, he was
far __ admitting that Irene's presence was influencing him. (Galsworthy)
14. Stroeve was, of course, delighted __ her. He could not do enough to
show his gratitude __ the whole hearted devotion __ which she had accepted
the burden he laid __ her. (Maugham)
15. Just before Christmas, Reggie Burnside passed __ London __ his
way __ Murren. He dropped __ Elizabeth's studio ir _ tea. (Aldington)
16. One autumn morning I was __ my mother __ the front garden, when
Mr. Murdstone, I knew him __ that name now, came by __ horseback.
(Dickens)
17. He was proud __ this enlistment; proud __ his boy forgoing off to
fight __ the country. (Galsworthy)
18. An accidental circumstance cemented the intimacy __ Steerforth and
me, __ a manner that inspired me __ great pride and satisfaction though it
sometimes led __ inconvenience. (Dickens)
I. Warm-Up Activities (Предтекстовые упражнения)
1. Обсудите следующие вопросы со своим партнёром:
– What means of creating new words in languages do you know?
– Can you give examples of newly designed words in English?
2. Key Words. Запомните слова, которые вам понадобятся при
работе с материалом данного урока:
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1. neologism [nɪ'ɔləʤɪz(ə)m] неологизм; использование новых слов;
новое слово, новое выражение;
2. adapt [ə'dæpt] 1) приспосабливать; пригонять, прилаживать; 2)
применяться, приспосабливаться;
3. technology [tek'nɔləʤɪ] 1) техника; технические и прикладные
науки; 2) технология;
4. significant [sɪg'nɪfɪkənt] значительный; существенный; важный;
значимый; знаменательный; значащий; многозначительный;
показательный; достоверный; выразительный;
5. alter ['ɔːltə] изменять; изменяться; изменить; менять;
переделывать; видоизменять; другой;
6. adopt [ə'dɔpt] принимать; усыновлять; перенимать; усваивать;
удочерять; заимствовать;
7. dialect ['daɪəlekt] диалект, наречие; говор;
8. falconry ['fɔː(l)k(ə)nrɪ] 1) разведение и подготовка ловчих птиц;
2) охота с ловчими птицами; соколиная охота;
9. lure [l(j)uə] a) соблазн; б) привлекательность, притягательность,
соблазнительность;
10.enticement [ɪn'taɪsmənt] [en-] 1) заманивание; переманивание; 2)
а) приманка, соблазн; б) очарование (как инструмент для соблазнения);
11.chortle ['ʧɔːtl] 1. от chuckle+snort 1) фыркать, сдавленно
смеяться; 2. сдавленный смех; пофыркивание;
12.hawk [hɔːk] 1) ястреб; сокол ;2) а) хищник (о человеке) б)
"ястреб", милитарист, сторонник военных действий; сторонник
"жёсткого" курса (в политике);
13.jocular ['ʤɔkjulə] шутливый; комический; забавный, весёлый;
курьёзный, смешной, юмористический;
14.physician [fɪ'zɪʃ(ə)n] 1) а) врач, доктор, медик; б) терапевт;
15.innovation [ˌɪnəu'veɪʃ(ə)n] 1) нововведение, новшество;
инновация, новаторство, новация; 2) новинка; новая идея, метод или
механизм;
16.hitherto [ˌhɪðə'tuː] до настоящего времени, до сих пор;
17.continuation [kənˌtɪnju'eɪʃ(ə)n] / 1) продолжение, продление
(действие и результат); 2) возобновление;
18.civilization [ˌsɪv(ə)laɪ'zeɪʃ(ə)n] = civilisation 1) цивилизация
(ступень развития общества); 2) цивилизованность, культура,
цивилизация; 3) цивилизованный мир;
19.coinage ['kɔɪnɪʤ] 1) чеканка монет; 2) монетная система; 3)
выдумка, вымысел, домысел; 4) создание неологизмов;
20.loanword ['ləunˌwɜːd] = loan word заимствованное слово,
заимствование;
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21. scientific [ˌsaɪən'tɪfɪk] научный;
22.phenomenon [fɪ'nɔmɪnən]; pl. phenomena 1) событие, феномен,
явление; 2) объект восприятия 3) необыкновенное явление; феномен;
23.borrowing ['bɔrəuɪŋ] 1) одалживание;2) ссуда; заём; кредит; 3)
заимствование;
24.designate ['dezɪgneɪt] назначать; назначенный; обозначать;
указывать; определять; называть; характеризовать;
25.current ['kʌr(ə)nt] текущий; ток; течение; действующий; поток;
токовый; сила тока; струя; водоток; ходячий;
26.resist [rɪ'zɪst] 1) а) сопротивляться, оказывать сопротивление;
противостоять; б) сопротивляться, противиться; препятствовать;
противодействовать; 2) а) противостоять; устоять; не поддаваться;
27.occasionally [ə'keɪʒ(ə)n(ə)lɪ] иногда, изредка, время от времени;
подчас, порой;
28.abstract ['æbstrækt] абстрактный; отвлеченный; абстрагировать;
абстракция; выписка; резюме; реферат; отвлеченное понятие;
аннотация;
29.influx ['ɪnflʌks] приток; наплыв; прилив; втекание.
II. Reading (Чтение). Прочитайте и переведите текст.
Every living language can readily be adapted to meet changes occurring
in the life and culture of its speakers, and the main weight of such changes
falls on vocabulary. Grammatical and phonological structures are relatively stable and change noticeably over centuries rather than decades, but
vocabularies can change very quickly both in word stock and in word meanings. Among the drivers of this sort of change, technology is among the
most significant.
Every language can alter its vocabulary very easily, which means that every
user can without effort adopt new words, accept or invent new meanings for
existing words, and, of course, cease to use some words or cease to use them
in certain meanings. Dictionaries identify some words and some meanings as
“obsolete” or “obsolescent” to indicate this process. No two speakers share
precisely the same vocabulary of words readily used and readily understood,
though they may speak the same dialect. They will, however, naturally have
the great majority of words in their vocabularies in common.
Languages have various resources for effecting changes in vocabulary.
Meanings of existing words may change. With the virtual disappearance of
falconry as a sport in England, lure has lost its original meaning of a bunch
of feathers on a string by which hawks were recalled to their handler and is
used now mainly in its metaphorical sense of enticement. Words such as
computer and jet acquired new ranges of meaning in the mid-20th century.
100
All languages have the means of creating new words to bear new mean-
ings. These can be new creations; chortle, which entered into general use in
the 20th century, was a jocular creation of the English writer and mathematician Lewis Carroll (creator of Alice in Wonderland), and gas was formed
in the 17th century by the Belgian chemist and physician Jan Baptista van
Helmont as a technical term in chemistry, loosely modeled on the Greek
chaos (“formless void”). Mostly, though, languages follow definite patterns
in their innovations. Words can be made up without limit from existing
words or from parts of words; the sources of railroad and aircraft are obvious. The controversy over the relations between church and state in the 19th
and early 20th centuries gave rise to a chain of new words as the debate
proceeded: disestablishmentarian, antidisestablishmentarian, antidisestab-
lishmentarianism. Usually, the bits and pieces of words used in this way are
those found in other such combinations, but this is not always so. The term
permafrost (terrain that is perennially frozen) contains a bit of permanent
probably not hitherto found in any other word.
A particular source of technical neologisms in European languages has
been the words and word elements of Latin and Greek. This is part of the
cultural history of western Europe, in so many ways the continuation of
Greco-Roman civilization. Microbiology and dolichocephalic are words
well formed according to the rules of Greek as they would be taken over into
English, but no records survive of mikrobiologia and dolichokephalikos ever
having been used in Ancient Greek. The same is true of Latinate creations
such as reinvestment and longiverbosity. The long tradition of looking to
Latin and, since the Renaissance, to Greek also as the languages of European civilization keeps alive the continuing formation of learned and scientific vocabulary in English and other European languages from these sources
(late 20th-century coinages using the Greek prefix cyber- provide an example). The dependence on the classical languages in Europe is matched by
a similar use of Sanskrit words for certain parts of learned vocabulary in some
modern Indian languages (Sanskrit being the classical language of India). Such
phenomena are examples of loanwords, one of the readiest sources for vo-
cabulary extension.
Loanwords are words taken into a language from another language (the
term borrowing is used for the process). Most obviously, this occurs when
new things come into individuals’ experiences as the result of contacts with
users of other languages. This is part of the history of every language, except
for one used by an impossibly isolated community. Tea from Chinese, cof-
fee from Arabic, and tomato, potato, and tobacco from American Indian
languages are familiar examples of loanwords designating new products
that have been added to the vocabulary of English. In more abstract areas,
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