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Файл:Language. Английский язык для филологов. Учебное пособие
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IV. Checklist (Упражнения на понимание содержания текста)
1. Просмотрите текст о типологии языка еще раз и ответьте
на вопросы:
1. What two sorts of language classification do you know?
2. What things of grammatical structure do all known languages have in
common?
3. What can be seen by comparing the relations between the forms of
words and their syntactic functions in different languages?
4. How many broad types of language have been distinguished since the
beginning of the 19th century? What are they?
5. What does assigning languages to different types involve? Why is it
an uneasy task?
6. Can languages of each of the types be found at all levels of civiliza-
tion and with all types of culture?
7. What do these two systems of classification involve and reveal?
2. Какие предложения верны (T), а где допущены ошибки (F)?
Исправьте неверные утверждения.
1. All known languages have words or wordlike elements combined in
accordance with rules into sentences. ________
2. The two sorts of language classification, historical and typological,
serve similar purposes but are differently based. ______
3. French is the form that Latin took in France in the course of time.______
4. English, like no other language, includes features of all three types.
______
5. English resembles Classical Chinese rather than Latin. _______
6. Language families group languages together on the basis of certain
overall similarities of structure irrespective of historical relations. _______
3. Составьте план текста урока. Выпишите к каждому пункту
плана ключевое предложение из текста.
4. Передайте устно содержание текста, придерживаясь своего
плана.
V. Additional Reading and Tasks (Дополнительные тексты и задания)
1. Просмотрите текст в течение 1–2 минут, определите его
главную идею и озаглавьте его:
System of conventional spoken or written symbols used by people in
a shared culture to communicate with each other is called a language. A lan-
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guage both reflects and affects a culture’s way of thinking, and changes in a
Tense
Present
Past
Future
Simple
am/is/are + V
3
was/were + V
3
will be + V₃
Continuous
am/is/are + being +
V
3
was/were + being +
V
3
will be + V₃
Perfect
have/has + been +
V
3
had + been + V
3
will + have +
been + V₃
culture influence the development of its language. Related languages become
more differentiated when their speakers are isolated from each other. When
speech communities come into contact (e.g., through trade or conquest), their
languages influence each other. Most existing languages are grouped with
other languages descended “genetically” from a common ancestral language.
The broadest grouping of languages is the language family. For example, all
the Romance languages are derived from Latin, which in turn belongs to the
Italic branch of the Indo-European language family, descended from the ancient parent language, Proto-Indo-European. Other major families include, in
Asia, Sino-Tibetan, Austronesian, Dravidian, Altaic, and Austroasiatic; in Africa, Niger-Congo, Afro-Asiatic, and Nilo-Saharan; and in the Americas, UtoAztecan, Maya, Otomanguean, and Tupian. Relationships between languages
are traced by comparing grammar and syntax and especially by looking for
cognates (related words) in different languages.
Ответьте на вопрос:
ное подлежащим, подвергается действию (выраженному сказуемым),
а не само/сам выполняет это действие. Например: письмо написано,
пациента лечат
Образование времен английского глагола в страдательном залоге
What is the elementary particle of the language system?
VI. Grammar in Use (Практическая Грамматика)
СТРАДАТЕЛЬНЫЙ ЗАЛОГ (PASSIVE VOICE)
Страдательный залог показывает, что лицо ли предмет, выражен-
Таблица 6
NB! Формы Future Continuous Passive не существует – вместо нее
применяется Future Simple (Indefinite).
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Упражнения
1) Раскройте скобки. Поставьте глаголы во времена Present,
Past and Future Simple Passive
1. The goal of semantic study of language (to match) with their proper
meanings and placed in certain environments by speakers of the language.
2. The first half of the 20th century (to mark) by the structuralist school,
based on the work of Ferdinand de Saussure.
3. Very little (to know) about the development of linguistic ideas in
Europe during the “Dark Ages”.
4. From around 8th century, several major grammars and dictionaries
(to produce) as well as descriptive works on Arabic pronunciation.
5. Several other important trends (to note) during the 17th and 18th cen-
turies.
6. The English consonants (to define).
7. It (to notice) that it is not every collocation of words of one syllable
that produces an effect of strength.
8. In ancient civilization, linguistic study (to motivate) by the correct
description of classical liturgical language.
9. Early Chinese thinkers (to concern) with the relationship between
names and reality.
10. English grammar (to think) as if it were a dead language, like Latin.
2) Переведите предложения с английского языка на русский,
обращая внимание на конструкции в страдательном залоге.
1. In English an auxiliary verb does not stand far from its main verb, and
a negative will be found in the immediate neighborhood of the word it negatives, generally the verb (auxiliary).
2. In ancient civilization, linguistic study was originally motivated by
the correct description of classical liturgical language.
3. These fast ideas developed into two schools of philological thought
which have since been labeled conventionalist and naturalistic.
4. The debate about the relationship between words and things is continued.
5. In this point of view attention was focused on the many exceptions to
these rules.
6. Another theoretical question was discussed in ancient Greece:
whether regularity (analogy) or irregularity (anomaly) was a better explanation for the linguistic facts of Greek.
7. This method was then applied to Classical Studies and to medieval
texts for the reconstruction of the author’s original.
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8. The prestige attached to SE is recognized by the adults in the community, and they will recommend SE as a desirable educational target.
9. Countries can be grouped into those which follow American English,
those which follow British English, and those (e. g. Canada) where there is a
mixture of influences.
10. It will be noticed, however, that it is not every collocation of words
of short words most frequently employed are not stressed at all and therefore
impress the ear in nearly the same way as prefixes and suffixes do.
3) Поставьте глаголы в требуемом времени страдательного
залога.
А.
1. "I don't want to hear another word. I __ never __ so __ in my whole
life. (to insult) ( Shaw)
2. But what shall I do if you __ ? (to kill) (Shaw)
3. Godfrey waited, before he spoke again, until the ale __ and the door
__ (to bring, to close) (Eliot)
4. In whatever spare time he could find, he read the current research
journals, trying to understand the implications of the experiments which __
throughout the world. (to perform) (Wilson)
5. Merriman, order the dog-cart at once. Mr. Ernest __ suddenly to
town. (to call back) (Wilde)
6. Upon the Doctor and the widow the eyes of both Mr. Tuprnan and his
companion __ for some time, when the stranger broke silence. (to fix) (Dickens)
7. In 1834, the Houses of Parliament, with the exception of Westminster
Hall __ by fire. They __ '. by Sir Charles Barry. (to destroy, to rebuild)
8. "I'm afraid that we're going to have to move," he said. "This lab won't
be big enough for us after all. But there's a double room on the eleventh
floor that __ " (to use — negative) (Wilson)
9. Lanny noticed that he __ by three white men from the coffee stall on
the other side of the road. (to watch)
10. It was past eleven o'clock — a late hour for the little village of Cobham – when Mr. Pickwick retired to the bedroom which __ for his reception.
(to prepare) (Dickens)
11. We __. if we __, but never mind. (to scold, to see) (Ch. Bronte)
12. The Nobel Prize __ to him in 1924 when the advent of wave mechanics had revealed the importance of his work, ten years after his famous
experiment __ (to give, to perform) (Wilson)
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13. The camp of peace will not allow the outbreak of a new war that __
by the imperialists. (to prepare)
14. I called... to ask if a diamond brooch of mine __ (to find) (Wilde)
15. The tea-things __ scarcely ___ when the London coach deposited
Mr. Weller, senior, at the door. (to put away) (Dickens)
16. Annette's most valuable stone was ruby, which __ to her when she
was twelve by an Indian prince who was in love with her mother. (to give)
(Murdoch)
17. He [Jim] put down his pail... and bent over the toe with absorbing
interest while the bandage __ (to unwind) (Twain)
18. He carefully examined the contents of his case, and did not speak
again until the beer __ and he had paid for it. (to bring) (Priestley)
19. The little patient — and __, and now lay composed in her crib. (to
examine, to soothe) (Ch. Bronte)
B.
1. It was an idea that __ at that moment __ by Colonel Melchett and
Colonel Bantry. (to discuss) (Christie)
2. Lanny __ cruelly, heartlessly in the way Sara __ When he __, the
barking of a dog __ It __ by hurried footsteps, (to beat, to beat, to beat, to
hear, to follow)
3. He [Arthur] went up to his room. Nothing in it __ since his arrest. (to
change) (Voynich)
4. You can feel when you __. (to watch] (Hilton)
5. The oldest of London's present-day theatres is th( Theatre Royal,
Drury Lane, which __ in 1663 and __ since __ several times. (to open, to reconstruct)
6. Below decks the atmosphere was close. Many cigarettes __, and __.
(to smoke) (Clark)
7. She kept an eye on the Leanharn people to see that her action __ duly
___ (to notice) (Maugham)
8. Rumania is a Balkan State which __ long __ for its mineral springs.
(to know) (Maugham)
9. After a few routine questions __ and __, Dr. Lord leant back in his
chair and smiled at his patient. (to ask, to answer) (Christie)
10. Ettore was twenty-three. He __ by an uncle in San Francisco and
was visiting his father and mother in Torino when war __ (to bring up, to
declare) (Hemingway)
11. He strode up to the front door of the forlorn house and rang the bell
like one who __ there for weeks. (to expect) (Priestley)
12. After lunch, we heard that Charles Lenton __ for. (to send) (Snow)
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13. Breakfast __ scarcely ___ when a waiter brought in Mr. Dowler's
UNIT 6
LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
ОВЛАДЕНИЕ ЯЗЫКОМ
card. (to clear away) (Dickens)
14. One could not walk or drive about Philadelphia without seeing or
being impressed with the general tendency toward a more cultivated and selective social life. Many excellent and expensive houses __ (to erect)
(Dreiser)
15. I __ constantly __ in the street. I like it. It gives an amusement to the
dullest walk. (to follow) (Maugham)
16. A minute earlier, a small boy with a partly deflated red balloon had
run out into the cleared forbidden street. He __ just __ : and __ back to the
curb by his father... (to capture, to drag) (Salinger)
17. ...the railway __ at all at that time. (to use — negitive) (Shute)
18. Ant on i a: Thank you. Thank you. Martin: What __ I __ for? (to
thank) (Murdoch and Priestley)
19. The gentleman was so startled that he took the night train for the
Continent and __ never __ of since. (to hear) (Maugham)
I. Warm-Up Activities (Предтекстовые упражнения)
1. Выполните следующие задания:
– study researches to see how the left and right halves of the human
brain play a crucial role in processing language;
– learn how the brain processes language;
– discuss with your partner the benefits of studying foreign languages.
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2. Key Words. Запомните слова, которые вам понадобятся при
работе с материалом данного урока:
1. acquisition [ˌækwɪ'zɪʃ(ə)n] / 1) приобретение (чего-л.; процесс);
2) приобретение (предмет) ; ценное приобретение; 3) овладение;
2. species-specific – видоспецифичный;
3. superficially [ˌs(j)uːpə'fɪʃɪəlɪ] 1) неглубоко, поверхностно; 2) внешне, на поверхности;
4. vocalize ['vəuk(ə)laɪz]; = vocalise 1) выражать, высказывать (мнение, пожелание и т. п.); 2) а) произносить звук, слово б) вокализовать;
озвончать (глухой согласный) в) добавлять гласные буквы на письме;
5. syrinx ['sɪrɪŋks] 1) нижняя гортань певчих птиц; 2) свищ, фистула; 3) евстахиева труба;
6. mammal ['mæm(ə)l] млекопитающее;
7. species ['spiːʃiːz] вид; порода; род; разновидность; тип; категория;
группа;
8. evince [ɪ'vɪn(t)s] проявлять; выказывать;
9. great apes = anthropoid apes 1) человекообразные, высшие приматы; 2) человекообразные обезьяны;
10. upright posture – вертикальная стойка;
11. locomotion [ˌləukə'məuʃ(ə)n] передвижение;
12. vocal cords – голосовые связки;
13. advantage [əd'vɑːntɪʤ] преимущество; плюс; выгода; достоинство; польза; превосходство; выигрыш;
14. mutual ['mjuːʧuəl, -tjuəl] взаимный; общий; обоюдный;
15. visibility [ˌvɪzə'bɪlətɪ] видимость; обзор;
16. adjusted [ə'ʤʌstɪd] 1) отрегулированный, установленный; выверенный, заданный; 2) приспособленный к среде обитания; 3) подходящий, пригодный;
17. utterance ['ʌt(ə)r(ə)n(t)s] высказывание; произнесение;
18. to cope with – справляться;
19. reasonably ['riːz(ə)nəblɪ] разумно; умеренно; здраво;
20. to pick out — вынимать, выдёргивать; определять, выделять;
21. despite [dɪ'spaɪt] несмотря на, вопреки чему-л.;
22. a good (or great) deal of – большое количество;
23. wield [wiːld] орудовать;
24. scarcely ['skeəslɪ] едва; вряд ли;
25. pertain [pə'teɪn, pɜː-] относиться; иметь отношение; принадлежать;
26. inheritance [ɪn'herɪt(ə)n(t)s] наследование; наследство; наследие;
наследственность;
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27. argue ['ɑːgjuː] спорить; доказывать; рассуждать; препираться;
аргументировать; полемизировать;
28. cerebral ['serəbr(ə)l] церебральный; мозговой;
29. mental ['ment(ə)l] умственный; психический; мысленный;
душевный; производимый в уме;
30. component [kəm'pəunənt] компонент; компонента; элемент; составляющий; составляющая; деталь; компонентный; составной; составная часть; узел;
31. rudimentary [ˌruːdɪ'ment(ə)rɪ] 1) элементарный ;2) зачаточный,
недоразвитый, рудиментарный;
32. research [rɪ'sɜːʧ] (научное) исследование; изучение; изыскание;
исследовательская работа;
33. investigator [ɪn'vestɪgeɪtə] 1) исследователь, испытатель; 2)
следователь;
34. claim [kleɪm] утверждать; требование; заявлять; претензия;
утверждение; заявление; иск; притязание; требовать; заявка;
35. maintain [meɪn'teɪn] сохранять; поддерживать; утверждать;
содержать; обслуживать; отстаивать; эксплуатировать;
36. utterance ['ʌt(ə)r(ə)n(t)s] высказывание; произнесение;
37. vicinity [vɪ'sɪnətɪ] окрестность; район; близость; соседство;
38. multilingual settings – многоязычное окружение;
39. innate faculty – врождённый дар;
40. multifaceted [ˌmʌltɪ'fasɪtɪd] многосторонний, многогранный;
многоаспектный.
II. Reading (Чтение). Прочитайте и переведите текст.
Speech is species-specific to humankind. Physiologically, animal communications systems are of all sorts. The animal sounds superficially most
resembling speech, the imitative cries of parrots and some other birds, are
produced by very different physiological means: birds have no teeth or lips
but vocalize by means of the syrinx, a modification of the windpipe above
the lungs. Almost all mammals and many other animal species make vocal
noises and evince feelings thereby and keep in contact with each other
through a rudimentary sort of communication, but those members of the
animal kingdom nearest to humans genetically, the great apes, lack the anatomical apparatus necessary for speech.
The development of speech has been linked to upright posture and the
freeing of the vocal cords from the frequent need to “hold one’s breath” in
using the arms for locomotion. Certainly, speaking and hearing—as a primary means of communication—have a number of striking advantages:
69
speech does not depend on daylight or on mutual visibility; it can operate in
all directions over reasonably wide areas; and it can be adjusted in loudness
to cope with distance. As is seen in crowded rooms, it is possible to pick out
someone person’s voice despite a good deal of other noise and in the midst
of other voices speaking the same language. Also, the physical energy required in speaking is extremely small in relation to the immense power
wielded by speech in human life, and scarcely any other activity, such as
running, walking, or tool using, interferes seriously with the process.
The characteristics just outlined pertain to all of the world’s spoken languages. What is more a matter of controversy is the extent to which biological inheritance is involved in language acquisition and language use. The
fact that language traditionally has been viewed as species-specific to human
beings argues an essential cerebral or mental component, and in the 19th
century certain aspects of speech control and use were located in a particular
part of the human brain (the Broca area, named for the 19th-century French
surgeon who discovered it, Paul Broca).
Whether the great apes have the mental capacity to acquire at least a ru-
dimentary form of language has developed into an area of active research.
While apes lack the anatomical structures that are necessary for the vocalization of human speech, many investigators nevertheless claim to have taught
chimpanzees, gorillas, and orangutans to communicate in languages whose
“words” are composed of hand signs or geometric symbols. These claims
have been disputed, with critics arguing that the apes have not demonstrated
true language acquisition in the sense of understanding the “words” as
symbolic abstractions that can be used in new and grammatically meaningful constructions. Researchers working with the apes, however, maintain
that at least some of the apes have learned to understand and manipulate the
“words” as abstractions.
No one inherits the ability to use a particular language, but children are
typically born with the ability and the drive to acquire language–namely,
the one (or ones) to which they are routinely exposed from infancy. Children
bring to this task considerable innate ability, because their exposure is
largely to a random selection of utterances (apart from any attempts at systematic teaching that they may encounter) occurring in their general vicinity
or addressed to them. Yet by late childhood they have, through progressive
stages, acquired the basic vocabulary of at least one language, together with
its phonological and grammatical structure. This is substantially the same
situation the world over, among literate and illiterate communities, and the
process takes up much the same number of years of childhood. Thus, it
would appear that all languages are roughly equal in complexity and in difficulty of mastery. Moreover, it is thought that some two-thirds of the world’s
70
children grow up in multilingual settings, suggesting that bilingualism is actually a more common human condition than monolingualism. Certainly,
children who acquire two languages do so at the same rate as children who
acquire one language. There seems to be no theoretical limit to the number
of languages a young child is capable of acquiring.
It is therefore clear that humans bring into the world an innate faculty
for language acquisition, language use, and grammar construction. The last
phrase refers to the internalization of the rules of the grammar of one’s first
language from a more or less random exposure to utterances in it. Human
children are very soon able to construct new, grammatically acceptable sentences from material they have already encountered; unlike the parrot in
human society, they are not limited to mere repetition of utterances.
The part played by this innate ability and its exact nature remain unclear.
Until the 1950s scholars considered language acquisition to be carried out
largely by analogical creation from observed patterns of sentences occurring in
utterances received and understood by the child. Such a view, much favoured
by persons inclined to a behaviourist interpretation of human learning proc-
esses (e.g., the American linguist Leonard Bloomfield), stressed the very evident differences between the structures of different languages, particularly on
the surface. Following the pioneering work of the American linguist Noam
Chomsky in the late 1950s, a number of linguists placed much more emphasis
on the inherent grammar-building disposition and competence of the human
brain, which is activated by exposure to utterances in a language, especially
during childhood, in such a way that it fits the utterances into predetermined
general categories and structures. Such linguists, inheritors of the 17th- and
18th-century interest in “universal grammar,” put their stress on the underly-
ing similarities of all languages, especially in the deeper areas of grammatical
analysis. Additional areas of investigation in the late 20th century were the
cognitive systems and abilities underlying language acquisition and use and the
relevance of social interaction (especially language play) between child and
adult. Theories of child language acquisition, as a consequence, became more
multifaceted and complex than the approaches that dominated linguistic research in the 1970s and ’80s.
Noam Chomsky
III. Practice (Активизация лексики). Выполните следующие упражнения.
1. а) Объясните значения выделенных слов из текста урока.
б) Найдите в тексте урока словосочетания, соответствующие
русским эквивалентам:
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