Типы значения. Значение в синтагматике и парадигматике Types of meaning

Word meaning is not homogeneous but is made up of various components. These components are described as types of meaning. The three main types are:

• grammatical,

• lexical,

• lexico-grammatical meaning.

Grammatical meaning

The words “girls”, “winters”, “joys” have one common meaning - grammatical meaning of plurality. R.S. Ginsburg gives the following definition to grammatical meaning: Grammatical meaning is the recurrent identical sets of individual form of different words, such as in tense meaning (went, liked, will go), case meaning (a girl’s answer), aspect meaning (is going). Some linguists also distinguish part of speech meaning which presupposes that all member of a major class (nouns, adjectives and so on) share a distinguishing semantic component called part-of-speech meaning (e.g., nouns have the meaning of thingness:table, window). The grammatical aspect of part-of-speech meaning is conveyed by a set of forms (table - tables, table - table’s, etc.). E.g., a verb possesses sets of forms expressing tense meaning (work - worked), mood meaning (work - would work), aspect meaning (work - is working), person meaning (work - works).

Lexical meaning

Lexical meaning is a component which is identical in all forms of the word (e.g. go - goes - gone - going - went - would go). Though all these forms possess different grammatical meanings, in each of them we find the same semantic component denoting process of moving. This is the lexical component of the word. Lexical meaning is unchanged in all forms and distributions of the word. The interrelation between lexical and grammatical meaning varies in different parts of speech. In nouns, lexical meaning prevails and stands out very clearly, while it is vague in prepositions, conjunctions, or link-verbs. Both the lexical and the grammatical meanings are inseparable. They make up the word meaning and cannot exist without the other.

Lexico-grammatical meaning

Lexico-grammatical meaning is the common denominator of all the meanings of words belonging to a lexico-grammatical class of words. It is the feature according to which they are grouped together. In fact, they are so-called generic terms. For material nouns, for example, the generic term will be “matter”; for collective nouns it will be “group”, for personal nouns - “person”, and so on.

Meaning in syntagmatics and paradigmatics

It is more or less universally recognised that word-meaning can be perceived through intralinguistic relations that exist between words. Intralinguistic relations of words are basically of two main types:

1. syntagmatic

2. paradigmatic.

Syntagmatic relations define the meaning the word possesses when it is used in combination with other words in the flow of speech. Paradigmatic relations are those that exist between individual lexical items which make up one of the subgroups of vocabulary items, e.g. sets of synonyms, lexico-semantic groups, etc. Paradigmatic relations define the word-meaning through its interrelation with other members of the subgroup in question. For example, the meaning of the verb to get can be fully understood only in comparison with other items of the synonymic set: get, obtain, receive, etc. Cf. He got a letter, he received a letter, he obtained a letter, etc. Comparing the sentences discussed above we may conclude that an item in a sentence can be usually substituted by one or more than one other items that have identical part-of-speech meaning and similar though not identical lexical meaning. The difference in the type of subgroups the members of which are substitutable in the flow of speech is usually described as the difference between closed and open sets of lexical items. The members of closed systems are strictly limited in number and no addition of new items is possible.

The sets in which the number of alternatives is practically infinite as they are continually being adapted to new requirements by the addition of new lexical items are described as open systems. Closed systems are traditionally considered to be the subject matter of grammar, open systems such as lexico-semantic fields, hyponymic, synonymic sets, etc.1 are studied by lexicology. From the discussion of the paradigmatic and syntagmatic relations it follows that a full understanding of the semantic structure of any lexical item can be gained only from the study of a variety of contexts in which the word is used, i.e. from the study of the intralinguistic relations of words in the flow of speech. This is of greatest importance in connection with the problem of the synchronic approach to polysemy.

It will be recalled that in analysing the semantic structure of the polysemantic word table we observed that some meanings are representative of the word in isolation, i.e. they invariably occur to us when we hear the word or see it written on paper. Other meanings come to the fore only when the word is used in certain contexts. This is true of all polysemantic words. The adjective yellow, e.g., when used in isolation is understood to denote a certain colour, whereas other meanings of this word, e.g. ‘envious’, ‘suspicious’ or ‘sensational’, ‘corrupt’, are perceived only in certain contexts, e.g. ‘a yellow look’, ‘the yellow press’, etc. As can be seen from the examples discussed above we understand by the term context the minimal stretch of speech determining each individual meaning of the word. The context individualises the meanings, brings them out. It is in this sense that we say that meaning is determined by context.

The meaning or meanings representative of the semantic structure of the word and least dependent on context are usually described as free or denominative meanings. Thus we assume that the meaning ‘a piece of furniture’ is the denominative meaning of the word table, the meaning ‘construct, produce’ is the free or denominative meaning of the verb make. The meaning or meanings of polysemantic words observed only in certain contexts may be viewed as determined either by linguistic (or verbal) contexts or extra-linguistic (non-verbal) contexts.

The two more or less universally recognised main types of linguistic contexts which serve to determine individual meanings of words are:

• the lexical context

• the grammatical context.

These types are differentiated depending on whether the lexical or the grammatical aspect is predominant in determining the meaning. In lexical contexts of primary importance are the groups of lexical items combined with the polysemantic word under consideration. This can be illustrated by analysing different lexical contexts in which polysemantic words are used. The adjective heavy, e.g., in isolation is understood as meaning ‘of great weight, weighty’ (heavy load, heavy table, etc.). When combined with the lexical group of words denoting natural phenomena such as wind, storm, snow, etc., it means ’striking, falling with force, abundant’ as can be seen from the contexts, e.g. heavy rain, wind, snow, storm, etc. In combination with the words industry, arms, artillery and the like, heavy has the meaning ‘the larger kind of something’ as in heavy industry, heavy artillery, etc. It can be easily observed that the main factor in bringing out this or that individual meaning of the words is the lexical meaning of the words with which heavy is combined.

Some linguists go so far as to assert that word-meaning in general can be analysed through its collocability with other words. They hold the view that if we know all the possible collocations (or word-groups) into which a polysemantic word can enter, we know all its meanings. Thus, the meanings of the adjectiveheavy, for instance, may be analysed through its collocability with the words weight, safe, table; snow, wind, rain; industry, artillery, etc. In grammatical contexts it is the grammatical (mainly the syntactic) structure of the context that serves to determine various individual meanings of a polysemantic word. One of the meanings of the verb make, e.g. ‘to force, to enduce’, is found only in the grammatical context possessing the structure to make somebody do something or in other terms this particular meaning occurs only if the verb make is followed by a noun and the infinitive of some other verb (to make smb. laugh, go, work, etc.). Another meaning of this verb ‘to become’, ‘to turn out to be’ is observed in the contexts of a different structure, i.e. make followed by an adjective and a noun (to make a good wife, a good teacher, etc.). Such meanings are sometimes described as grammatically (or structurally) bound meanings.

In a number of contexts, however, we find that both the lexical and the grammatical aspects should be taken into consideration. It is usual in modern linguistic science to use the terms pattern or struсture to denote grammatical contexts. It is argued that difference in the distribution of the word is indicative of the difference in meaning. Sameness of distributional pattern, however, does not imply sameness of meaning.

Dealing with verbal contexts we consider only linguistic factors: lexical groups of words, syntactic structure of the context and so on. There are cases, however, when the meaning of the word is ultimately determined not by these linguistic factors, but by the actual speech situation in which this word is used. The meanings of the noun ring, e.g. in to give somebody a ring, or of the verb get in I've got it are determined not only by the grammatical or lexical context, but much more so by the actual speech situation. The noun ring in such context may possess the meaning ‘a circlet of precious metal’ or ‘a call on the telephone’; the meaning of the verb to get in this linguistic context may be interpreted as ‘possess’ or ‘understand’ depending on the actual situation in which these words are used. It should be pointed out however that such cases, though possible, are not actually very numerous. The linguistic context is by far a more potent factor in determining word-meaning.

It is of interest to note that not only the denotational but also the connotational component of meaning may be affected by the context. Another type of classification almost universally used in practical classroom teaching is known as thematic grouping. Classification of vocabulary items into thematic groups is based on the co-occurrence of words in certain repeatedly used contexts. In linguistic contexts co-occurrence maу be observed on different levels. On the level of word-groups the word question, for instance, is often found in collocation with the verbs raise, put forward, discuss, etc., with the adjectives urgent, vital, disputable and so on. As a rule, thematic groups deal with contexts on the level of the sentence. Words in thematic groups are joined together by common contextual associations within the framework of the sentence and reflect the interlinking of things or events. Common contextual association of the words, e.g.tree — grow — green; journey — train — taxi — bags — ticket or sunshine — brightly — blue — sky, is due to the regular co-occurrence of these words in a number of sentences. Words making up a thematic group belong to different parts of speech and do not possess any common denominator of meaning.