- •Лексикология как наука. Предмет лексикологии и ее связь с другими разделами языкознания
- •Lexicology and other branches of science
- •Слово как основная единица языка. Отношения между словом и понятием
- •The lexical meaning vs. Notion
- •Проблема определения слова и его основные характеристики
- •Элементы семантической структуры слова. Полисемия в английском языке Semantic triangle
- •Meaning and the sound complex
- •Meaning and the concept
- •Meaning and the referent
- •Polysemy
- •Полисемия и омонимия. Проблема разграничения полисемии и омонимии
- •Антонимические отношения между словарными единицами. Некоторые общие и различительные черты синонимов и антонимов
- •Типы значения. Значение в синтагматике и парадигматике Types of meaning
- •Grammatical meaning
- •Lexical meaning
- •Lexico-grammatical meaning
- •Meaning in syntagmatics and paradigmatics
- •Значение в сложных словах
- •Семантические изменения как источник количественного и качественного роста словаря. Расширение и сужение значения
- •Виды синонимов. Синонимические ряды. Синонимическая доминанта. Эвфемизмы как специальный вид синонимов. Дифференциация синонимов
- •Euphemisms
- •Омонимы в английском языке. Классификация омонимов
- •Classification of Homonyms
- •Синонимия в английском языке. Критерии синонимичности. Происхождение омонимов Sources of synonymy
- •The origin of homonyms
- •Морфемы. Типы морфем. Алломорфы
- •Classification from the semantic point of view
- •Classification from the structural point of view
- •Процессы улучшения и ухудшения значения. Другие типы семантических изменений
- •Развитие словарного состава английского языка. Причины развития лексикона
- •Системные группы слов. Тематические группы
- •Омонимия в синхроническом аспекте. Разграничение омонимии и полисемии
- •Проблема мотивации слов
- •Причины и типы семантических изменений
- •Types of semantic change
- •Семантические поля
- •Значение в производных словах. Синонимия, полисемия и омонимия аффиксов Polisemy and homonymy
- •Synonymy
- •Морфемный и деривационный анализ. Анализ по нс
- •Словообразование. Синхронический и диахронический подходы к словообразованию. Различные типы словообразования в английском языке
- •Various ways of word formation
- •Суффиксация в английском языке. Происхождение и продуктивность английских суффиксов
- •The origin
- •Productivity
- •Префиксация в английском языке
- •Classification
- •Конверсия, подходы к изучению конверсии, диахронический и синхронический подходы к проблеме конверсии
- •Diachronic Approach
- •Synchronic approach
- •Типичные семантические отношения между членами конвертируемых пар (синхронический подход)
- •I. Verbs converted from nouns (denominal verbs)
- •II. Nouns converted from verbs (deverbal substantives)
- •Проблема субстантивации Nouns converted from adjectives
- •Словосложение в английском языке. Классификация сложных слов Word-composition
- •Classification compound nouns
- •Compound adjectives
- •Compound verbs
- •Derivational compounds
- •Reduplicative compounds
- •Pseudo-compounds
- •Критерии разграничения сложных слов от словосочетаний
- •Сокращение как один из продуктивных словообразования в современном английском языке. Различные типы сокращений
- •Второстепенные способы словообразования (обратная деривация, звукоподражание, редупликация, чередование звуков и др.) Sound interchange
- •Distinctive stress
- •Sound imitation
- •Back-formation
- •Графические сокращения, акронимы, слова, образованные в результате телескопии
- •Историческая изменчивость структуры слова
- •Сочетаемость и валентность слов Lexical valency
- •Grammatical valency
- •Фразеологические единицы. Их устойчивость, раздельнооформленность и семантическая целостность Phraseology /from lecture/
- •Phraseology /Ginzburg/
- •Free Word-Groups vs Set-Phrases, Phraseological Units, Idioms, Word-Equivalents
- •Criteria of Stability and Lack of Motivation
- •The criterion of idiomaticity
- •The criterion of stability
- •Grammatical inseparability
- •Классификации фразеологических единиц Ethymological classification /Smith/
- •Semantic classification /Виноградов/
- •Functional (part of speech) classification /Arnold/
- •Detailed functional, structural and semantic classification /Кунин/
- •Пути и способы образования фразеологических единиц
- •Этимологическая характеристика английского словаря. Исконные и заимствованные слова. Критерии заимствования
- •Words of native origin
- •Borrowed words
- •Some basic assumptions /Ginzburg/
- •Пути и способы заимствования. Критерии заимствования /lecture/
- •Criteria of Borrowings
- •/Ginzburg/
- •Роль латинских заимствований в английском языке
- •Различные типы заимствований. Ассимиляция заимствований
- •Assimilation of borrowings
- •Phonetic assimilation
- •Grammatical Assimilation
- •Lexical Assimilation
- •Проблема интернациональных слов The problem of international words /lecture/
- •International words /Arnold/
- •Гибридные слова
- •Этимологические дублеты /lecture/
- •/Arnold/
- •Неологизмы Способы образования неологизмов
- •Варианты и диалекты английского языка English variants and dialects Standard English
- •American English
- •Canadian, Australian and Indian variants
- •Основные принципы составления словарей. Виды словарей
Проблема интернациональных слов The problem of international words /lecture/
They present specific interest for foreign language teaching. They comprise a special stock common to many languages as a result of simultaneous or successive processes form one and the same source. Such words usually convey notions which are significant in the field of communication. Many of them are of Latin and Greek origin. International are: most names of sciences, terms of art — theatre, tragedy, artist, political terms — progress, revolution, democracy, scientific and technological terms — atomic, radio, TV.
The English language contributed a considerable part of international words to world languages (especially sport terms): football, hockey, baseball, tennis.
Fruits and foodstuffs imported from exotic countries, became international: coffee, chocolate, banana, grapefruit.
It is important to note that international words are mainly borrowings.
International words /Arnold/
As the process of borrowing is mostly connected with the appearance of new notions which the loan words serve to express, it is natural that the borrowing is seldom limited to one language. Words of identical origin that occur in several lan-guages as a result of simultaneous or successive borrowings from one ultimate source are called international words. Expanding global contacts result in the considerable growth of international vocabulary. All languages depend for their changes upon the cultural and social matrix in which they operate and various contacts between nations are part of this matrix reflected in vocabulary.
International words play an especially prominent part in various terminological systems including the vocabulary of science, industry and art. The etymological sources of this vocabulary reflect the history of world culture. Thus, for example, the mankind’s cultural debt to Italy is reflected in the great number of Italian words connected with architecture, painting and especially music that are borrowed into most European languages: allegro, andante, aria, arioso, barcarole, baritone (and other names for voices), concert, duet, opera (and other names for pieces of music), piano and many many more.
The rate of change in technology, political, social and artistic life has been greatly accelerated in the 20th century and so has the rate of growth of interna-tional wordstock. A few examples of comparatively new words due to the progress of science will suffice to illustrate the importance of international vocabulary: algorithm, antenna, antibiotic, automation, bionics, cybernetics, entropy, gene, genetic code, graph, microelectronics, microminiaturisation, quant, quasars, pulsars, ribosome, etc. All these show sufficient likeness in English, French, Russian and several other languages.
The international wordstock is also growing due to the influx of exotic borrowed words like anaconda, bungalow, kraal, orang-outang, sari, etc. These come from many different sources. International words should not be mixed with words of the common Indo-European stock that also comprise a sort of common fund of the European languages. This layer is of great importance for the foreign language teacher not only be-cause many words denoting abstract notions are international but also because he must know the most efficient ways of showing the points of similarity and difference between such words as control : : контроль; general : : генерал; industry : : индустрия or magazine : : магазин, etc. usually called ‘translator’s false friends’.
The treatment of international words at English lessons would be one-sided if the teacher did not draw his pupils’ attention to the spread of the English vocabu-lary into other languages. We find numerous English words in the field of sport: football, out, match, tennis, time. A large number of English words are to be found in the vocabulary pertaining to clothes: jersey, pullover, sweater, nylon, tweed, etc. Cinema and different forms of entertainment are also a source of many international words of English origin: film, club, cocktail, jazz.
At least some of the Russian words borrowed into English and many other languages and thus international should also be mentioned: balalaika, bolshevik, cosmonaut, czar, intelligentsia, Kremlin, mammoth, rouble, sambo, soviet, sputnik, steppe, vodka.
To sum up this brief treatment of loan words it is necessary to stress that in studying loan words a linguist cannot be content with establishing the source, the date of penetration, the semantic sphere to which the word belonged and the circumstances of the process of borrowing. All these are very important, but one should also be concerned with the changes the new language system into which the loan word penetrates causes in the word itself, and, on the other hand, look for the changes occasioned by the newcomer in the English vocabulary, when in finding its way into the new language it pushed some of its lexical neighbours aside. In the discussion above we have tried to show the importance of the problem of conformity with the patterns typical of the receiving language and its semantic needs.