- •Contents
- •General editors’ preface
- •Contributors
- •Table of legislation
- •Austria
- •Belgium
- •England
- •France
- •Germany
- •Greece
- •Ireland
- •Italy
- •Netherlands
- •Portugal
- •Scotland
- •Spain
- •Abbreviations
- •Austria
- •Belgium
- •England
- •France
- •Germany
- •Greece
- •Ireland
- •Italy
- •The Netherlands
- •Portugal
- •Scotland
- •Spain
- •Other sections
- •1 Some perennial problems
- •I. The architecture of contract law
- •B. Common law
- •II. The questions
- •2 Contemporary solutions
- •Case 1: promises of gifts
- •Case
- •Discussions
- •FRANCE
- •BELGIUM
- •THE NETHERLANDS
- •SPAIN
- •PORTUGAL
- •ITALY
- •AUSTRIA
- •GERMANY
- •GREECE
- •SCOTLAND
- •ENGLAND
- •IRELAND
- •Summaries
- •Preliminary comparisons
- •General principles:
- •Exceptions
- •Case 2: promises of compensation for services rendered without charge
- •Case
- •Discussions
- •FRANCE
- •BELGIUM
- •THE NETHERLANDS
- •SPAIN
- •PORTUGAL
- •ITALY
- •AUSTRIA
- •GERMANY
- •GREECE
- •SCOTLAND
- •ENGLAND
- •IRELAND
- •Summaries
- •Preliminary comparisons
- •Case 3: promises to pay debts not legally due
- •Case
- •Discussions
- •FRANCE
- •BELGIUM
- •THE NETHERLANDS
- •SPAIN
- •PORTUGAL
- •ITALY
- •AUSTRIA
- •GERMANY
- •GREECE
- •SCOTLAND
- •ENGLAND
- •IRELAND
- •Summaries
- •Preliminary comparisons
- •Case 4: a promise to come to dinner
- •Case
- •Discussions
- •FRANCE
- •BELGIUM
- •THE NETHERLANDS
- •SPAIN
- •PORTUGAL
- •ITALY
- •AUSTRIA
- •GERMANY
- •GREECE
- •SCOTLAND
- •ENGLAND
- •IRELAND
- •Summaries
- •Preliminary comparisons
- •Case 5: promises to store goods without charge
- •Case
- •Discussions
- •FRANCE
- •BELGIUM
- •THE NETHERLANDS
- •SPAIN
- •PORTUGAL
- •ITALY
- •AUSTRIA
- •GERMANY
- •GREECE
- •SCOTLAND
- •ENGLAND
- •IRELAND
- •Summaries
- •Preliminary comparisons
- •Case 6: promises to do a favour
- •Case
- •Discussions
- •FRANCE
- •BELGIUM
- •THE NETHERLANDS
- •SPAIN
- •PORTUGAL
- •ITALY
- •AUSTRIA
- •GERMANY
- •GREECE
- •SCOTLAND
- •ENGLAND
- •IRELAND
- •Summaries
- •Preliminary comparisons
- •Case 7: promises to loan goods without charge
- •Case
- •Discussions
- •FRANCE
- •BELGIUM
- •THE NETHERLANDS
- •SPAIN
- •PORTUGAL
- •ITALY
- •AUSTRIA
- •GERMANY
- •GREECE
- •SCOTLAND
- •ENGLAND
- •IRELAND
- •Summaries
- •Preliminary comparisons
- •Case 8: a requirements contract
- •Case
- •Discussions
- •FRANCE
- •BELGIUM
- •THE NETHERLANDS
- •SPAIN
- •PORTUGAL
- •ITALY
- •AUSTRIA
- •GERMANY
- •GREECE
- •SCOTLAND
- •ENGLAND
- •IRELAND
- •Summaries
- •Preliminary comparisons
- •Case 9: promises to pay more than was agreed I
- •Case
- •Discussions
- •FRANCE
- •BELGIUM
- •THE NETHERLANDS
- •SPAIN
- •PORTUGAL
- •ITALY
- •AUSTRIA
- •GERMANY
- •GREECE
- •SCOTLAND
- •ENGLAND
- •IRELAND
- •Summaries
- •Preliminary comparisons
- •Case 10: promises to pay more than was agreed II
- •Case
- •Discussions
- •FRANCE
- •BELGIUM
- •THE NETHERLANDS
- •SPAIN
- •PORTUGAL
- •ITALY
- •AUSTRIA
- •GERMANY
- •GREECE
- •SCOTLAND
- •ENGLAND
- •IRELAND
- •Summaries
- •Preliminary comparisons
- •Case 11: promises to do more than was agreed; promises to waive a condition
- •Case
- •Discussions
- •FRANCE
- •BELGIUM
- •THE NETHERLANDS
- •SPAIN
- •PORTUGAL
- •ITALY
- •AUSTRIA
- •GERMANY
- •GREECE
- •SCOTLAND
- •ENGLAND
- •IRELAND
- •Summaries
- •Preliminary comparisons
- •Case 12: promises to take less than was agreed
- •Case
- •Discussions
- •FRANCE
- •BELGIUM
- •THE NETHERLANDS
- •SPAIN
- •PORTUGAL
- •ITALY
- •AUSTRIA
- •GERMANY
- •GREECE
- •SCOTLAND
- •ENGLAND
- •IRELAND
- •Summaries
- •Preliminary comparisons
- •Case 13: options given without charge
- •Case
- •Discussions
- •FRANCE
- •BELGIUM
- •THE NETHERLANDS
- •SPAIN
- •PORTUGAL
- •ITALY
- •AUSTRIA
- •GERMANY
- •GREECE
- •SCOTLAND
- •ENGLAND
- •IRELAND
- •Summaries
- •Preliminary comparisons
- •Case 14: promises of rewards
- •Case
- •Discussions
- •FRANCE
- •BELGIUM
- •THE NETHERLANDS
- •SPAIN
- •PORTUGAL
- •ITALY
- •AUSTRIA
- •GERMANY
- •GREECE
- •SCOTLAND
- •ENGLAND
- •IRELAND
- •Summaries
- •Preliminary comparisons
- •Case 15: promises of commissions
- •Case
- •Discussions
- •FRANCE
- •BELGIUM
- •THE NETHERLANDS
- •SPAIN
- •PORTUGAL
- •ITALY
- •AUSTRIA
- •GERMANY
- •GREECE
- •SCOTLAND
- •ENGLAND
- •IRELAND
- •Summaries
- •Preliminary comparisons
- •3 Comparisons
- •I. Gifts and favours
- •A. Promises of money or property
- •1. Obstacles to giving gifts
- •2. Exceptions for meritorious gifts
- •3. Protecting reliance
- •B. Favours that need not entail expense
- •1. Favours that can no longer be performed costlessly
- •a. Promises to loan goods
- •b. Promises to take care of goods
- •2. A broken promise to do a service
- •3. A note on the ‘intention to be legally bound’
- •C. What is left of Roman contract law?
- •1. Promises to perform contractual obligations that are legally unenforceable
- •III. The absence of commitment
- •A. Open terms and options
- •B. Locus poenitentiae
- •IV. Epilogue
- •A. The results
- •B. The doctrines
- •C. The search for solutions
- •1. Gifts and favours
- •a. Promises of money or property
- •b. Favours that need not entail expense
- •3. The absence of commitment
- •a. Open terms and options
- •b. Promises conditional upon success
- •Index by country
- •Austria
- •Belgium
- •England
- •France
- •Germany
- •Greece
- •Ireland
- •Italy
- •Netherlands
- •Portugal
- •Scotland
- •Spain
- •United States
- •Index by subject
264 the enforceabilit y of promises
ireland
It is necessary to look at the two promises separately, as they would be classified in a different manner under Irish law. The promise by Contractor would be classified as a variation of the agreement made wholly for the benefit of one party, Realty. Under Irish law such a variation requires consideration and in the present case Realty has provided no consideration and the promise by Contractor is not binding.25
The promise by Realty that Contractor would be paid without seeking an architect’s certificate would be classified under Irish law not as a variation, but as a waiver or forbearance. Under this doctrine a promise by a party to relinquish some or all of his rights under a contract may amount to a waiver of those rights. If, by words or conduct, a party has agreed or led the other party to believe that he will accept performance of an agreement in a different manner from that provided in the contract, he will not be able to refuse that performance when tendered. A waiver is distinguishable from a variation of a contract in that there is no consideration for the forbearance moving from the party to whom it is given.26 The party granting the forbearance may, however, be entitled upon reasonable notice to require the other party to comply with the original mode of performance, unless in the mean time circumstances have so changed as to render it impossible or inequitable so to do. In the present case, therefore, Realty’s promise may be binding, but this will depend upon the circumstances which arise following the waiver. This will be dealt with further below.
Whether it matters that Realty has acted to its detriment in advertising the glareproof windows depends on the possible application of the doctrine of promissory estoppel, the conditions for which were set out in discussing Case 1. Once again, a limiting condition is that the promisee cannot use the doctrine as a sword as well as a shield, to confer a cause of action where none existed before. Therefore in the present case Realty’s actions in advertising the glareproof windows would give rise to no cause of action on its behalf.
It would matter if Contractor had already covered over portions of the building the architect would have needed to inspect, before Realty threatened not to keep its promise regarding payment without an architect’s certificate. As described above, a party may waive a term of the contract regarding the mode of performance and he may be bound by such a waiver. He may be entitled, upon reasonable notice, to require the other
25 See Clark, Contract Law, ch. 18. |
26 Chitty on Contracts, ch. 22. |