8 Explain meanings of these phrases in English and compose your own sentences using them.

waxed paper a cork stopper food supply an open kettle least penetrated by air to spread

9 Read the text and fill in the missed prepositions. Canning

Two individuals ___ England were given credit ___ applying and improving Appert's invention, Bryan Donkin and Peter Durand. Bryan Donkin realized ___ 1811 that iron containers could be used instead ___ the fragile glass, and ___ 1812 the factory began to produce canned food such as meat. ___ 1810, Peter Durand patented the use of metal containers, which were easier ___ make and harder ___ break than glass jars. He covered iron cans, which were prone to rust, with a thin plating of tin (which is not adversely affected by water), and invented the "tin can." By 1813, Durand was selling canned meat ___ the Royal Navy. The British admiralty bought these foods as part ___ the medical stores ___ distribution ___ sick men ___ well as ___ supply expeditions.

By 1819 canning had arrived in the United States, but no one wanted canned food ___ the Civil War started. ___ 1821, the William Underwood Company in Boston introduced commercial canning ___ the United States. For a long time, people regarded canned foods with suspicion, and for good reasons. ___ the middle ___ the nineteenth century, the foods produced ___ the canning industry were as likely to spoil as not because ___ inadequate heating techniques. Then, beginning ___ 1868, first in the United States and later in Europe, handmade cans were replaced ___ machine-cut types. The new technology made it possible ___ giant meat-canning firms like P. D. Armour ___ emerge in Chicago and Cincinnati. The product, however, was packed ___ big, thick, clumsy red cans and was not very appetizing.

The American Gail Borden was a pioneer ___ food canning. In 1856 he successfully produced sweetened condensed milk in cans and was granted a patent on the process. With financial support, the New York Condensed Milk Company was established in 1857. The demand for condensed milk was ___ first limited, but during the American Civil War it was introduced on a large scale. The Civil War contributed significantly ___ the popularization of canned foods in general. The army had ___ be fed and the government contracted ___ firms to supply food. Under difficult circumstances, people learned that canned foods such ___ condensed milk can be tasty and nourishing. The invention of practical can openers ___ the end ___ the nineteenth century made cans easier ___ open, making them even more convenient ___ consumers.

For many years, however, the flavor of most canned food left much ___ be desired. On the other hand, it should be realized that products such ___ canned peas and salmon were usually sold ___ people living on the American prairies or in the urban slums in Great Britain, most of whom had never eaten the fresh product. In addition, losses due ___ spoilage caused by microorganisms remained high. It was not until the end of the nineteenth century that research carried ___ at Massachusetts Institute of Technology made a substantial contribution ___ improving the keeping quality, nutritional value, and taste ___ food products preserved in cans and glass.

In the early twentieth century, the heavy cans were replaced ___ those made ___ lighter materials, and manufacturers could stress that their products were hygienically processed and, therefore, safer ___ eat than the traditionally unpackaged products that had been sold ___ bulk. ___ food technology advanced, numerous chemical additives were developed to control or speed up food processing and ___ increase the keeping quality of canned foods.

Originally, the nutritional value ___ food preserved ___ canning was not high, mainly due ___ the length ___ time required ___ the heating techniques. From the 1920s onward, however, the nutritional value of canned foods gradually approached that ___ the fresh product, thanks ___ modern food technology. Finally, ___ the 1960s, Reynolds and Alcoa companies succeeded ___ making all-aluminium cans ___ of one piece of metal, thereby solving the problem of the weight of the cans; only the lid needed ___ be attached. ___ the same time, the invention of the rip-off closure and the pop-top lid on aluminium cans made them even more convenient, and made can openers unnecessary. For consumers, the choice between fresh or canned food became largely a question ___ taste, convenience, and preference.