- •Preface
- •Content
- •Unit 5- igneous rocks 96
- •Part 2 - continental crust 172
- •Unit 1 geology
- •1. Comprehension
- •Fig. 1. James Hutton (1726-1797)
- •2. Reading comprehension Read the text «What is Geology?»
- •2. 1 Vocabulary
- •Text: What is Geology?
- •2.2 Exercises
- •2.2.2 Translate into Russian:
- •2.2.3 Complete the sentences:
- •2.2.6 Match the word phrases in right column with the word phrases in the left one and compile your own sentences.
- •2.2.7 Give the English equivalents to the Russian words:
- •2.2.8 Read the text and find the English equivalents to the following terms and phrases.
- •2.2.9 Match the science with the description of what it studies:
- •2.2.10 Choose the correct variant.
- •3. Discussion
- •4. Wordlist
- •4.1 Pronunciation
- •4.2 Terms
- •Unit 2 fossils
- •1. Comprehension
- •1.1 Vocabulary
- •3. Pay attention to the underlined terms and expressions in the text:
- •Channel канал
- •2. Exercises
- •2.1 Mark the stressed syllable on the following words from the text:
- •2.3. Give the Russian equivalents to the following word combinations and phrases:
- •2.4 Read the text below and think of the word that best fits each space. Use only one word in each space. There is an example at the beginning.
- •2.5 Form nouns from the following verbs and find the sentences in the text with these new words.
- •2.6 Put a preposition in each of the numbered spaces:
- •2.7 What are the corresponding words?
- •2.8 Choose between the alternatives to complete these sentences:
- •(1) Petrify (2) organ (3) decompose (4) effect (5) cover (6) compact (7) lithify (8) reduce (9) react (10) fossil
- •3. Reading comprehension
- •3.1. Detailed reading: Relative Dating: Using Rocks
- •3.2.1 How to Treat a Fossil in Geological Fieldwork
- •4.1 Read the following text and pay special attention to the pronunciation of the geological periods. The Geological Column
- •Geologic Time Scale
- •History of the time scale
- •Terminology
- •Table 1. Geologic Time Scale
- •4.2 Read the texts “Geological Time Scale» in self-study booklet, pg. 58) Choose one period and using the following plan, make a short report.
- •5. Listening comprehension
- •5.1. You will hear a radio report about fossils. Answer statements 1-10 by writing t (for True) and f (for False):
- •5.2. Listen to the report once more. Then, for statements 11-20, complete the notes that summarize what the speaker says. You will need to write a word or a short phrase in each box.
- •6. Discussion (r.P – 2.1)
- •Communicative formulas
- •7. Wordlist
- •7.1. Pronunciation
- •7.2 Terms
- •7.3 Words and phrases
- •Unit 3 sizing up the earth
- •1. Comprehension
- •1.1 Vocabulary
- •1.2 Read the text «Our layered planet» and pay attention to the terms in bold (r.P – 3.4, 3.5) our layered planet
- •Fig. 7. Differentiation of early Earth
- •2.4 State whether the following statements are true or false.
- •3.1.2 Read the text once more and fill in the chart with the necessary information. Then label the diagram and give an explanation what each item means.
- •3.2 Detailed reading - Earth’s size and shape
- •Isostasy
- •Fig. 10. Relative abundance of elements in whole Earth
- •Fig. 11. Relative abundance of elements in Earth’s crust
- •4. Listening comprehension
- •4.3. You will hear a lecture on the Earth’s origin. For statements 16-20, choose the best answer a, b, c, d.
- •5. Discussion: (r.P – 3.1, 3.3)
- •1. Situational game-
- •2. The earth
- •6. Wordlist
- •6.1 Pronunciation
- •6.2 Terms
- •Unit 4 rocks and minerals
- •1. Comprehension
- •Definitions
- •Fig. 12. Rock cycle
- •1.3 Read the following text and fulfill the after task exercises the rock cycle
- •Vocabulary
- •2. Exercises
- •2.3 Spelling dictation
- •2.4 Read the following definition and fill in the gaps with the missing words and then give a short outline of this definition. (r.P – 8.2.12)
- •Fig. 13. Rock cycle
- •3. Reading comprehension
- •3.1 Scanning: Earth’s building blocks (r.P – 4.2)
- •3.1.1 Pay attention to the pronunciation of the following minerals:
- •3.1.2 Find the information you need to complete the following diagram from the text below.
- •Table 2. Chemical Grouping and Composition of Some Common Minerals
- •3.1.3 Complete the following chart. Give examples of each type of rock forming mineral.
- •3.2 Informative reading- Minerals and their physical properties.
- •Part 1 Minerals
- •3.2.2 Read the text and fulfill the after-reading exercises. (r.P – 4.3, 4.6) Physical Properties
- •Table 3 Mohs Hardness Scale
- •Fig. 18. Pyrite cube showing metallic luster (Photo by John Bett) Fig. 19. Vitreous luster on quartz crystal faces (Photo by John Bett)
- •3.2.2.3 Give examples of the following physical properties of minerals
- •Fig. 24. Conglomerate – sedimentary rock
- •4. Listening comprehension
- •5. Discussion
- •5.1 Complete the mind map. Discuss the following questions:
- •5.2 Exploratory speaking (short talk)
- •Use the mind-maps and the table below. Don’t forget communicative formulas. Communicative formulas
- •Table 4. Rocks and minerals
- •6. Wordlist
- •6.1 Pronunciation
- •6.2 Terms
- •6.3 Words and phrases
- •Igneous rocks
- •1. Comprehension Read the following text «Anatomy of a volcano»
- •1.1 Vocabulary
- •1.2 Anatomy of a volcano Pay attention to the following terms in bold. (r.P. – 5.3)
- •2. Exercises
- •2.1 Read the text (once) more carefully and choose the correct alternative for these words:
- •Round-formed opening
- •2.2 Use two words from the corresponding line to complete each sentence.
- •2.3. Give the Russian equivalent the following phrases:
- •2.4 Match the words in the right column with the words in the left one.
- •2.5 Use the terms and fill in the gaps
- •3. Reading comprehension
- •3.1 Scanning - Igneous rocks (r.P. -5.5)
- •Fig. 26. Classification of igneous rocks
- •3.1.1. Correct the following statements where necessary (Igneous rocks)
- •3.1.2. You have one minute to read this part of the text -Classification and chemical differentiation of igneous rocks
- •3.2 Informative reading – Igneous Rocks (r.P.-5.4)
- •Fig. 27. Various modes of occurrence of igneous rocks
- •3.2.2 Can these terms and phrases be understood without translating? Why?
- •3.2.3 State, which sentences, is t (true) or f (false) according to the text.
- •3.2.6 Complete the following sentences, using words and phrases from the text.
- •3.2.7 Answer the following questions and give more / extra information.
- •4. Listening comprehension
- •4.1 You will hear a radio report about volcanic rocks. Answer statements 1-10 by writing t (for True) and f (for False):
- •4.3 Listen to the lecture in geology at the Aberdeen University. The topic of the lecture is intrusive igneous rocks. Complete the following chart with the missing information.
- •Igneous Rocks- Intrusive
- •4.4. Listen to the lecture once more. Look at the diagram and describe the features produced by intrusive rocks, using the given definitions:
- •5. Discussion
- •Fig. 28. Shapes of volcanoes
- •6. Wordlist
- •6.1 Pronunciation
- •6.2 Terms
- •Unit 6 sedimentary rocks
- •Comprehension
- •1.1 Vocabulary
- •1.2 Read the text and fulfill the after reading exercises (r.P – 6.1)
- •Fig. 29. Breccia
- •Exercises
- •2. 2 Read the following phrases, write down the word. Read the word and find sentences with this word.
- •2.3 Match the verb with the noun. (Add the preposition where necessary)
- •2.4 Complete the following sentences, by unscrambling the bolded words. Spell the word. Give its definition.
- •2.5 There is a spelling mistake in each line. Write the correct word in the space provided. Prepare for a spelling dictation.
- •2.6 Fill in the space with the appropriate word or phrase.
- •3. Reading comprehension
- •3.1 Scanning
- •3.1.1 Rocks from living things
- •3.1.2 Rocks from chemicals
- •1. Match the words with the Russian equivalent.
- •2. Translate the following word combinations and phrases.
- •3. Compose questions to the text, using the following Wh-words: what, which, where, when, how
- •3.2 Informative reading- Rocks from fragments
- •3.2.1 Read the text (Part 1, Part 2) and for statements 1-12, choose the best answer: a, b, c or d. Then explain the words in bold. Part 1
- •Fig.33. Ferruginous sandstone Part 2
- •B. No bigger than sand grain
- •A. Medium-grained
- •B. Greywacke
- •3.2.2 Read the text once more and fill in the charts with the necessary information from part 1 and part 2. Sedimentary rocks
- •Types of sedimentary rocks
- •3.2.3 Give detailed information to the following questions.
- •3.2.4 Use the following, so as to write a description of sedimentary rocks. Label each description (conglomerate / breccia / rudite)
- •3.3 Detailed reading
- •Text 1 - Sedimentary Rocks
- •Table 5. Classification of Common Sedimentary Rocks
- •3.3.2. Match the English terms with the Russian ones in the right column
- •3.3.3. Match the words from column a with the words in column b.
- •3.3.4. Fill in the blanks with the correct word.
- •3.3. 5. Compile sentences using the following phrases.
- •3.3.6. State whether the following statements are true or false.
- •3.3.7. Answer the following questions.
- •Fig. 36. Sedimentary stages in the rock cycle
- •Fig. 37. Continental, shoreline and marine sedimentary environments
- •Read the following text and fill in the missing words.
- •3.3.9. Complete the following sentences.
- •4. Listening comprehension
- •4.2 You will hear a lecture. You will hear it twice. For questions 6-10 choose the best answer a, b or c.
- •B. Destruction of sedimentary rocks
- •5.2 You have to give a lecture on sedimentary rocks. Use the following diagram.
- •5.3 Group discussion
- •6. Wordlist
- •6.1 Pronunciation
- •6.2 Terms
- •Unit 7 metamorphic rocks
- •1. Comprehension
- •1.1 Vocabulary
- •3. Read the following word formations and remember their pronunciation:
- •1.2 Read the text and fulfill the after reading exercises. (r.P – 7.2, 7.3) metamorphic rocks
- •Fig. 38. Gneiss Fig. 39. Marble
- •Fig. 40. Grade and facies describe metamorphism
- •Table 6. Classification of Common Metamorphic Rocks
- •2. Exercises
- •2.1 Define the following terms with their similar meaning in Russian
- •2.2 Match the English equivalents to the Russian terms.
- •2.4 Fill in the gaps using the word formations.
- •2.7 State whether the following statements are true or false.
- •3. Readng comprehension
- •3.1 Detailed reading: Occurrence and classification of metamorphic rocks
- •3.1.1. State whether the following sentences are t (true) or f (false), according to the information from the text
- •3.2 Informative reading: Metamorphic rocks
- •Fig. 41. Metamorphic facies
- •4. Revision
- •4.1 Choose the correct variant
- •5. Listening comprehension
- •5.1 You will hear part of a lecture. For statements 1- 10, complete the notes, which summarize what the speaker says. You will need to write a word or short phrase in each box.
- •5.2 You will hear a conversation between a student and a teacher in Geology at Aberdeen University. For statements 1-10, choose the best answer a, b, or c.
- •6. Discussion: task 1
- •Communicative formulas
- •7. Wordlist
- •7.2 Terms
- •7.3 Words and phrases
- •Unit 8 the restless crust part 1: oceanic crust
- •1. Comprehension
- •1.1 Vocabulary
- •1.2 Read the text «The Ocean Floor». Pay attention to the diagram. Fulfill the exercises after the text. (r.P – 8.1.1)
- •Fig. 42. Ocean floor
- •2. Exercises
- •2.1 Look at the geographical map and point out the oceans. Name them.
- •2.2 Look at the diagram below and answer the following questions (r.P.- 8.2.1)
- •Fig. 43. Ocean areas and depths
- •2.3 Match the English term with the Russian one.
- •2.6 Look at the (r.P – 8.1.1) cross section of an imaginary ocean. The vertical scale is exaggerated for effect. Name the 10 major features of an ocean floor. Point them out.
- •3. Reading comprehension
- •3.1 After-reading tasks.
- •3.1.1. Look through the text and pick out the terms, which have the following definition.
- •3.1.3. Spreading ridge evolves several stages. Put the words according to the stages. Compose sentences to describe the process. (r.P – 8.1.2, 8.1.3)
- •3.1.4. Put the facts in the correct order which shows how sea floor spreading develops.
- •4. Listening comprehension
- •6. Discussion (r.P – 8.1.5)
- •Earth’s changing surface
- •Fig. 45. Three types of plate boundaries
- •1. Comprehension
- •1.1 Vocabulary
- •1.2 Mountain building (r.P – 8.2.7, 8.2.8, 8.2.9)
- •Fig. 46. Mountain building
- •Fig. 47. Ocean-ocean subduction zone
- •Fig. 48. Ocean-continent boundary
- •Fig. 49. Continent-continent collision
- •2.3 Complete the following short description of mountain building. Scan the text once more.
- •3. Reading comprehension
- •Informative reading: How continents evolve
- •4. Listening comprehension
- •5. Discussion
- •3.1 Comprehension: faults
- •3.1.2 Fault terminology (r.P – 8.3.1.3, 8.3.1.2)
- •Fig. 50. Fault anatomy
- •Fig. 51. Three types of fault motion
- •3.1.3 Exercises
- •1. Match the English term with the Russian variant. (text: Fault terminology)
- •3. Match the term with its definition and then find its translation.
- •4 Fill in the gaps with the missing words.
- •5 Read the following fault types. The look at the diagrams and then try to draw them by heart. And draw a diagram. (r.P – 8.3.1.3, 8.3.1.4)
- •Fig. 52. Fault types
- •6. Here are six definitions. Read the definition, then name the term and give its translation (r.P – 8.3.1.3, 8.3.1.4)
- •3.1.4 Listening comprehension
- •3.2 Comprehension: folds
- •3.2.1 Vocabulary
- •Word formation
- •Fold terminology (r.P. - 8.3.2.1, 8.3.2.3)
- •Fig. 54. Folding structure
- •4. Discussion
- •5. Wordlist
- •5.1 Pronunciation
- •5.2 Terms
- •Appendix test 1 (unit 1- Geology)
- •B. Isaac Newton d. James Hutton
- •Test 2 (unit 2-Fossils)
- •B. Found in
- •Permeation
- •A. How old the rocks are
- •A. Crust rock
- •Test 3 (unit 3-Earth)
- •Test 4 (unit 4 - Rocks and Minerals)
- •Test 5 (unit 5-Igneous Rocks)
- •B. Central
- •A. Circular
- •A. Mafic lava
- •C. Felsic lava
- •Test 6 (unit 6- Sedimentary Rocks)
- •Test 7 (unit 7- Metamorphic Rocks)
- •C. Burial metamorphism
- •Test 8-1 (unit 8- Restless Crust)
- •Test 8-2 (unit 8- Restless Crust)
- •A. Faults
- •References
2.6 Put a preposition in each of the numbered spaces:
Fossils referred ____ anything dug out of the ground.
The slow process of oxidation takes place ____ the presence of oxygen.
Decaying organisms are sometimes preserved ____ sediments.
An increase ____ pressure causes the sediments to become compacted and lithified.
Fossils are restricted ____ sedimentary environment.
Carbonization plays a special role ____ the preservation of plant fossils.
2.7 What are the corresponding words?
1. to show |
6. without something |
2. to oppose |
7. to rise |
3. to change |
8. to fall into small parts |
4. to keep in a good state |
9. to change from one form to another |
5. ultimate |
10. continental |
2.8 Choose between the alternatives to complete these sentences:
The word fossil carries a distinct/distinctly derogatory implication.
The hard parts of organisms resist decomposition more effective/effectively than the soft parts.
Clear/clearly fossils are only preserved under favorable circumstances.
Terrestrial animals decompose quick/quickly after death.
Past events are recorded cryptical/cryptically in sedimentary rocks.
2.9 Read the text. Use the words below the text to form one word that fits in the same numbered space in the text. Write the word in the space. The exercise begins with an example.
THE PROCESS OF (0) FOSSILISATION
Fossils are the remains of animals and plants found in rocks and are called (1)_________.
Immediately after death, (2) _____ begin to decay.
The hard parts resist (3) _____ more than the soft parts and become buried in and protected by sediment.
In many instances the fossils are (4) ____ part of the sediment in which they are embedded.
The (5) ____ of the fossils by successive layers of sediment causes the sediments to become (6) ____ and (7) ____.
The most important change is (8) ____, which is accompanied by chemical reactions.
Such (9) ____ frequently involve the remains of animals and plants.
The process of (10) _________ takes place over long periods of time.
(1) Petrify (2) organ (3) decompose (4) effect (5) cover (6) compact (7) lithify (8) reduce (9) react (10) fossil
3. Reading comprehension
3.1. Detailed reading: Relative Dating: Using Rocks
Read the text and for questions 1-10, choose the best answer: A, B, C or D. Then explain the words in bold.
Earth’s history lies locked up in the rocks that form its crust. Sedimentary rock layers or strata were laid down on top of one another, like pages in a history book. Reading these pages is the study called stratigraphy. Much of this is based on studying the properties of rocks themselves.
5Geologists identify individual strata largely by such properties as grain size, minerals and color. These features and distinctive fossils help experts to define rock units or formations into members and beds or lump them together in subgroups or super groups.
Many pages in Earth’s book are torn, turned upside down, displaced or lost.
10Stratigraphy involves working out the true sequence in which rock strata formed in any given place, matching these with layers elsewhere, and noting local gaps where erosion has wiped strata from the record.
Various clues help rock detectives discover where earth movements or injected molten rock have tampered with the evidence. For instance, steeply
15sloping strata never formed that way. Faults, folds and injections of molten rock are younger than the rocks they affect. Mud cracks, ripple marks and pillow lava create distinctive patterns on a layer’s upper surface, which becomes its base if the rock is overturned. A break between level rock layers above and crumpled layers below is an unconformity, hinting at a time gap
20when rock layers vanished by erosion.
Other clues help experts correlate the age of rocks formed at the same time in different places. Widely separated strata may share a unique set of characters, or facies. Migrating shorelines may mark a worldwide fall or rise in sea level. Widespread layers of volcanic ash could hint at an immense 25volcanic eruption. Lavas or sediments accumulating at the same time lock in particles aligned in the same direction by the Earth’s magnetic field, which has undergone a sequence of reversals. Matched alignments and matched fossils help geologists to correlate the relative ages of rock-cores sampled from around the world.
(David Lambert “The Field Guide to Geology” 1988, Cambridge University Press)
1. Where can one find the Earth’s history?
A. on the surface of the rocks
B. locked up in the rocks
C. under the Earth’s surface
D. inside the Earth’s crust
2. Sedimentary rock layers are like
a sandwich B. a history film C. a history book D. a map
3. What science studies the Earth’s history?
sedimentology
stratigraphy
geology
mineralogy
4. What features help to define rock formations into groups and subgroups?
rock properties B. fossils C. grain size D. minerals
5. Which lines show the objective of stratigraphy?
10 – 12 B. 5 – 8 C. 21 – 23 D. 25 – 27
6. How many clues help rock detectives to discover where earth movement has tampered with the evidence?
A. 4 B. 5 C. 3 D. 6
7. What helps geologists to correlate the relative ages of rock-cores?
A. matched fossils
B. matched alignments
C. matched alignments and fossils
D. aligned particles
8. What do migrating shorelines mark?
A. fall or rise in sea level
B. immense rise of sea floor
C. decrease of water level
D. shifting of continents
9. What is another word for set of characters?
features B. facies C. sequences D. rock strata
10. What does relative dating mean?
A. geological age of a rock or fossil
B. geological age of a rock or fossil, expressed in units of time.
C. age of a fossil organism or formation
D. chronological arrangement of fossils or rocks with respect to the geological time scale.
3.2. INFORMATIVE READING- Relative Dating: Fossils
Read the following text and fill in the chart with the necessary information from the text. (R.P. 2.2)
Definition |
Formation |
Evolution for fossil zone |
Requirements for fossil zone |
Significance |
|
|
|
|
|
What we know of the relative ages of rocks owes much to paleontology- the study of fossils. Fossils are remains of prehistoric organisms, locked in sedimentary rocks being laid down when those organisms died.
Most dead organisms soon rot away. Fossils tend to be hard parts like wood or bone quickly buried and preserved by sediment below a sea or lake. Percolating minerals may reinforce a fossil. Or a corpse may dissolve to leave a hollow called a mold. Minerals that fill a mold create a cast. Plant leaves carbon films. Even burrows, tracks and droppings can be fossilized. In time Earth movements lift fossil beds above the sea. Rivers cut down through the topmost bed, exposing lower layers. So paleontologists find fossils formed in rocks laid down at different times.
These studies show that living things evolved through time. Minute one-celled organisms gave rise to many-celled plants and animals. Some soft-bodied sea creatures led on to animals with shells or inner skeletons. Fishes gave rise to amphibians; amphibians to reptiles; reptiles to the birds and mammals. Through many generations, tiny but accumulating changes in inherited characters altered organisms, better fitting them to feed, breed and survive their enemies. Most major groups are very old indeed. But there survives a mere fraction of the hundreds of millions of species evolving in the last 600 million years. New enemies or harsh environmental change destroyed the rest. Fossil records in the rocks show waves of mass extinction, and then explosive evolution as new organisms moved into habitats left empty by immense catastrophes.
Fossils offer valuable aids to relatively dating sedimentary rock strata and correlating these around the world. This process involves identifying faunal zones: rock strata containing unique assemblages of fossils. Geologists name each faunal zone after a distinctive species called a zone fossil. A good zone fossil meets four requirements. Its species was extremely plentiful; spread far and fast; left readily preserved remains; yet soon died out, so limiting its fossils to a few rock layers. They ranged from sizeable animals and plants to tiny forms. Here are four examples:
Fig.
4. Trilobites (Phacops)
1.Trilobites were marine, segmented distant relatives of woodlice; zone macrofossils for rocks 590-
250 million years old.
2.Ammonites were cephalopod mollusks with coiled, flat, wrinkled shells; zone macrofossils for rocks 370-65 million years old.
Fig.
5. Ammonite (Mortoniceras)
3.Bivalves are headless mollusks with hinged, two-part shells; zone macrofossils for rocks 370-65 million years.
Fig.
6. Bivalve mollusk (Ostrea)
4. Foraminifera are tiny one-celled protozoan organisms drifting in the seas and forming limy shells pierced by tiny holes; zone microfossils for rocks 570-0 million years old.
Besides providing guides to evolution and the ages of rocks, fossil individuals and groups reveal how prehistoric living things behaved and the kinds of place and climate they inhabited. There are limits to our knowledge. Most soft-bodied organisms left no fossil record. Relatively few land plants and animals were fossilized. Billions of fossils vanished when erosion wore away the rocks containing them, or these were baked or crushed by metamorphic change. Billions more are inaccessible. But kinds of fossil are discovered every year.
(David Lambert “The Field Guide to Geology” 1988, Cambridge University Press