Legalese
Lawyers use Latin words and expressions when writing legal texts of every kind, from statutes to emails.
Legal Language
Legal writing in English has developed over hundreds of years and is characterised by specific features, some of which can make it difficult for the non-lawyers to understand. Characteristics of legal writing include: using Latin terms; using technical terms (“subsidiarity”); using old-fashioned words not much in general use; using pair of words with reciprocal relationship (‘lessor’/’lessee’); using legal jargon (‘without prejudice to’) including the use of pairs of words (‘terms and conditions’), or triplets (‘build, erect or construct’); having special meanings for words in ordinary use (‘the judge determined the fact of the case’), where ‘determined’ means ‘decided’; using vague words (‘provide a sufficient service’); using long sentences with little punctuation; inverting word order (‘title absolute’); using capital letters to signal important or defined terms (‘the terms of the Lease…’) avoiding personal pronouns (‘you’, ‘we’, ‘I’); the specific use of the modal verb ‘shall’ to impose an obligation or duty on someone (‘The tenant shall not sub-let the whole or part of the premises.’); the use of ‘shall’ in a directory sense (‘Notice of an appeal shall be filed within 28 days.’)
There is a movement to draft legal text in standard, modern, ‘plain’ English but any change will be slow.
Note: Some legal drafters argue that the use of ‘shall’ in a directory sense is to be avoided because of confusion. Note also the general English use of ‘shall’ to refer to future intentions (‘I shall write to him’), although this use is increasingly uncommon.
Latin terms
There are many legal terms in written English legal texts, although recent reforms in the English justice system have encouraged the use of English rather than Latin. Some Latin terms are used so frequently that they are in general English use (e.g. ad hoc, bona fide, pro rata, etc.). It is useful to be able to recognize their meaning and a dictionary or online glossary will help. Forms of pronunciation vary.
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ad hoc – |
for this purpose |
in situ – |
in its original situation |
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affidavit – |
witnessed, signed statement |
inter alia – |
among other things |
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bona fide – |
in good faith |
ipso facto – |
by the fact |
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caveat – |
warning |
per pro – |
on behalf of another |
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de facto – |
in fact |
per se – |
by itself |
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de jure – |
by right |
prima facie – |
at first sight |
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et cetera (etc.) – |
and so on |
pro rata – |
in proportion |
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exempli gratia (e.g.) – |
for example |
quasi – |
as if it were |
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ex parte (ex p.) – |
by a party without notice |
sub judice – |
In the course of trial |
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id est (i.e.) – |
that is |
ultra vires – |
beyond the power |
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in camera – |
hearing a case in private |
videlicet (viz) – |
namely |
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in curia – |
in open court |
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Older words and modern equivalents
A number of linking terms are used in older written legal texts (case reports, legislations, court documentations, contracts, etc.) to refer to other parts of the same text, to different legal documents, or to related contexts.
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the aforementioned / the foregoing – |
set out above / written above |
notwithstanding – |
despite |
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the undermentioned |
set out below / written below |
thereafter – |
after that |
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hereafter – |
after this – |
thereby – |
in that way / by that |
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hereby – |
in this way / by this |
therein – |
in that (document) |
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herein – |
in this (document) |
thereof – |
of that |
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hereof – |
of this |
thereto – |
to that |
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hereto – |
to this |
therewith – |
with that |
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herewith – |
with this |
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2. The following excerpt is from the legal document known as an 'answer'. It was submitted to the court by the defendant. Underline the common Latin words and phrases in the text. Do you know what they mean?
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The claim for breach of contract fails inter alia to state facts sufficient to constitute a cause of action, is uncertain as to what contract plaintiffs are suing on, and is uncertain in that it cannot be determined whether the contract sued on is written, oral or implied by conduct.
The complaint alleges breach of contract as follows: ‘At all times herein mentioned, plaintiffs were a part [sic] to the Construction Contract, as well as intended beneficiaries to each subcontract for the construction of the house. In light of the facts set out above, defendants, and each of them, have breached the Construction Contract.’
On its face, the claim alleges only that defendants ‘breached the Construction Contract’. But LongCo is not a party to the Construction Contract. Therefore LongCo cannot be liable for its breach. See e.g. GSI Enterprises, Inc. v. Warner (1993). |
3. Match each Latin word or expression (1-8) with its English equivalent and the explanation of its use (a-h).
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1. ad hoc |
a thus (used after a word to indicate the original, usually incorrect, spelling or grammar in a text) |
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2. et alii (et al.) |
b for example (used before one or more examples are given) |
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3. et cetera (etc.) |
c for this purpose (often used as an adjective before a noun) |
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4. exempli gratia (e.g.) |
d against (versus is abbreviated to ‘v.’ in case citations, but to 'vs.’ in all other instances) |
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5. id est (i.e.) |
e and others (usually used to shorten a list of people, often a list of authors, appellants or defendants) |
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6. perse |
f and other things of the same kind (used to shorten a list of similar items) |
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7. sic |
g by itself (often used after a noun to indicate the thing itself) |
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8. versus (vs. or v.) |
h that is (used to signal an explanation or paraphrase of a word preceding it) |
4. Match each Latin term (1-10) with its English equivalent (a-j).
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1 |
de facto |
a among other things |
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2 |
ipso facto |
b per year |
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3 |
inter alia |
c number of shareholders or directors who have to be present at a board meeting so that it can be validly conducted |
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4 |
per annum |
d in fact |
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5 |
pro forma |
e of one’s own right; able to exercise one’s own legal rights |
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6 |
pro rata |
f proportionally |
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7 |
quorum |
g by that very fact itself |
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8 |
sui juris |
h as a matter of form |
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9 |
ultra vires |
i as follows |
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10 |
videlicet (viz.) |
j beyond the legal powers of a person or a body |
Reading 2: The Language of the Law
Pre-reading task. Read words. Mind the stress. A):
΄separate so΄licitor em΄ploy
΄barrister de΄scend ,prose΄cution
΄notary a΄ttorney a΄ccomplice
΄counsel re΄tain for΄bid
΄summarise be΄yond su΄ggest
΄verdict con΄duct ,summing-΄up
΄evidence per΄mit pro΄fession
B) Complete the word building table.
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Noun/Verb Adjective |
Verb Noun |
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proud |
to descend |
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boast |
to employ |
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notary |
prosecution |
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separate |
to conduct |
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guilty |
to suggest |
|
evidence |
summing-up |
D) Before you read look through the following words and phrases to make sure that you know them. Learn those that you don’t know.
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proud [ He’s very proud of his daughter’s achievements. |
гордий, який володіє почуттям власної гідності Він дуже пишається досягненнями своєї дочки. |
|
pride [ (2. = proper pride) to take great pride in one's children |
1. гордість, почуття гордості; 2. почуття власної гідності або самоповаги; пишатися своїми дітьми |
|
boast [ empty / idle / vain boast proud boast |
1. хвастощі, похвальба; 2. предмет гордості; марні хвастощі; хвастощі |
|
separate [ separate cell
|
1. окремий; ізольований; відособлений, відділений; одиночна камера; 2. роздільний; сепаратний; 3. особливий, спеціальний; самостійний |
|
solicitor [
|
соліситор, повірник, повірений у справах; адвокат (який готує справи для баристера е виступає лише в судах нижчої інстанції) |
|
barrister [ briefless barrister |
баристер, адвокат; адвокат без практики |
|
to descend
[ to descend the stairs to be descended from Vikings |
спускатися, сходити, іти вниз; знижуватися; походити; спускатися сходами; походити від вікінгів |
|
notary [ notary public |
нотаріус; державний нотаріус |
|
attorney [
district attorney; circuit attorney pardon attorney |
повірений; юрист; (Am.) адвокат; чиновник органів юстиції; прокурор, аторней; прокурор округу (США); аторней з питань помилувань |
|
client
[
lawyer’s clients |
1. клієнт; 2. постійний покупець, замовник; 3. постоялець, гість (у готелі) клієнти адвоката |
|
to employ
[
to be employed by smb |
надавати роботу; наймати; тримати на службі, роботі; користуватися послугами; працювати, служити у когось |
|
counsel [ to be heard by counsel |
(pl. без змін) представник захисту або обвинувачення; юрисконсульт; вести справу через адвоката |
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to summarise
[ |
підсумовувати, резюмувати, підбивати підсумок |
|
brief / to brief [
to have plenty of briefs to take a brief to hold a brief to throw down one's brief |
(n.) 1. короткий письмовий виклад справи (складене соліситором для баристера); 2. справа, клієнт; (v.) давати інструкції адвокатові; доручати ведення справи; мати велику практику (про адвокату); взяти на себе ведення справи; вести справу в суді (як адвокат); відмовитися від подальшого ведення справи |
|
to retain
[
to retain an attorney to retain in custody |
1. запрошувати, наймати (про адвоката); 2. утримувати; стримувати; підтримувати; 3. зберігати; наймати адвоката; утримувати під вартою; |
|
rank
[
rank badge persons of rank pride of rank |
звання; чин; достоїнство; посада, службове становище; ранг (дипломатичний) військовий знак розрізнення; аристократія; високопоставлені особи зарозумілість |
|
the Bar
[
to be at the Bar to be called to the Bar (= to call within the bar) bar |
адвокатура, колегія адвокатів; стан адвокатів; баристери (у Великій Британії); бути адвокатом; отримати право адвокатської практики
брусок; планка; рейка; поперечина |
|
beyond
[ beyond the ocean it is beyond me beyond reach |
1. поза, за межами; 2. удалині; далеко від, далі; по той бік океану; це за межами мого розуміння; за межами досяжності |
|
the Bench
to elevate to the Bench |
місце суддів (у залі суду); суд; суддівська посада; судді, суддівська колегія призначити на посаду судді |
|
jury [ to charge / instruct a jury to dismiss a jury to empanel, swear in a jury to serve on a jury |
присяжні (засідателі); суд присяжних; наставляти, давати інструкції присяжним; розпустити суд присяжних; привести присяжних до присяги; виступати у ролі присяжних |
|
by means of |
за допомоги (чогось), через (щось) |
|
verdict
[ verdict of acquittal to bring in /to return a verdict of guilty (not guilty) |
вердикт, рішення присяжних виправдання підсудного вердиктом присяжних винести вердикт про винність (невинності)
|
|
guilty [ guilty of murder verdict of guilty |
винний, винуватий; винний у вбивстві; обвинувальний вирок |
|
beyond
reasonable doubt
[ |
поза всякими обґрунтованими сумнівами |
|
prosecution [ |
судове переслідування; пред'явлення позову; обвинувачення (як сторона в карному процесі); |
|
to conduct [ to conduct a campaign |
вести, керувати; проводити; проводити кампанію |
|
accomplice
[ accomplice in crime |
спільник, співучасник (злочину); співучасник злочину |
|
to turn the King/Queen’s evidence |
стати свідком обвинувачення |
|
witness
[ |
свідок, очевидець |
|
to forbid (forbad(e) – forbidden) |
забороняти, не давати дозволу |
|
to suggest
[ The architect suggested restoring the building. |
пропонувати, радити; висувати; припускати Архітектор запропонував реконструкцію будівлі. |
|
leading question |
навідне запитання |
|
evidence
[ hearsay evidence evidence-in-chief |
свідчення; доказ; показання свідка або обвинувачуваного; показання з чужих слів; свідчення, які отримані на головному допиті |
|
summing-up
[ |
заключна промова судді; резюме |
]
]
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],[
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( = legal counsel)
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(of)
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1. Read the text about Legal English and answer the questions.
1. Why are the English proud of their legal system?
2. What is the difference between solicitor and barrister?
3. What are the Bar and the Bench, and why are they called so?
4. What is a jury, and what is their function in court?
5. Explain the following legal terms: beyond reasonable doubt, to turn the King/Queen’s evidence, leading question, cross-examination and summing-up.
One of the proudest boasts of the Englishman is of the British justice and the English legal system. In their pride they follow the tradition of Rome, but in their law they owe less to the Romans than almost any country in Europe. Much less, for instance, than Scotland, which has a quite different system of law from England. This peculiar English system has its own peculiar terms: to understand them you must understand a little of the system itself.
In England the legal profession is really two separate professions: solicitors and barristers. The solicitor is probably the more ancient profession. He descends from the notaries and attorneys of Elizabethan times and indeed even earlier. Only on the introduction of a solicitor can a client employ a barrister, who is referred to as a counsel. The solicitor summarises his client’s case for counsel, and the document on which he does so is called a brief. A barrister retained by a solicitor for a client is said to be briefed for him.
It is from the ranks of the Bar, as barristers corporately are
called, that judges are chosen. The Bar referred to is a
physical bar (it is actually a barrier
[
])
in the Courts, beyond which no one may pass except the
privileged Queen’s Counsel who have been called within the bar.
Judges, thus, are not themselves a separate profession; they are
barristers who have been elevated to the Bench, itself name derived
from the part of the Court where they sit.
The judge decides the interpretation of the law, but, in serious criminal cases, all questions of fact are decided by a jury. Juries may also be found in civil cases, that is disputes other than criminal trials. By means of the jury, the man in the street enters upon the legal scene. In England a jury in a criminal case can return only one of two verdicts: Guilty or Not Guilty.
In order to prove its case beyond reasonable doubt the prosecution calls evidence. Since the prosecution is conducted in the name of the Queen / King, a criminal who decides to give evidence against his accomplices is to turn the King/Queen’s evidence.
In examining his witnesses counsel is forbidden to ask questions which suggest the answers he wants. Such questions are called leading questions and are permitted only in cross-examinations, that is, the procedure by which, after he has given his/her evidence-in-chief, a witness is further questioned by counsel for the other side. In this way the full meaning and value of the evidence is tested.
After all the evidence has been given the judge summarises the case, both law and facts, for the benefit of the jury. This is called the summing-up.
2. Match the words with their definitions.
|
1. counsel |
a. the decision of a jury at the end of a trial |
|
2. the Bench |
b. information etc that gives reason for believing something; proof (e.g. in a law case) |
|
3. verdict |
c. a) the institution and conduct of legal proceedings against a person; b) the proceedings brought in the name of the Crown to put an accused on trial |
|
4. guilty |
d. a) a judge or magistrate sitting in court in a judicial capacity; b) judges or magistrates collectively |
|
5. prosecution |
e. someone who sees an event and reports what happened |
|
6. accomplice |
f. responsible for an offence or misdeed |
|
7. witness |
g. a barrister or group of barristers engaged in conducting cases in court and advising on legal matters |
|
8. evidence |
h. a person who helps another in committing a crime |
3. Writing Annotation. Read the phrases, which will help you to write the annotation and summary and write the annotation.
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Annotation |
Annotation |
Summary |
|
Introduction The article is entitled _________ The article is published in ______ The article under the title ___ is/was published in _____ _______ is dealt with in the article. _______ is / are considered in the article. |
The article entitled (headlined) ‘____’ published in _____ deals with (is devoted to; touches upon) the problem of _____. The article deals with the problem _____. The article deals with (is devoted to / considers / gives description of) ____ The article outlines / gives a review of ________ |
The headline (title) of the article (text) is ________ The article is entitled (headlined) ____ The author of the article is ______. It is taken from (published in) the newspaper / journal __________. The author of the article is ____. |
|
Main body Special (particular) attention is given to _ Mention is also made of _____ A wide range of problems / topics / issues are considered such as _________ . (Smth)______ is / are analyzed / touched on (upon) / dealt with __ Special attention is given to ____ the description of __ the classification of _ the problem of ___ a new approach of __ the solution of ___ |
The author presents __________ comments (on) __________ analyses ________________ discusses _______________ shows________________ provides ________________ illustrates _________________ recommends _________________ describes ____________________ The article describes __________ The article gives a description of __ The author suggests a new approach to the solution of the problem of ____ The key problem of the article is ____ The general idea of the article is ____ The article considers / outlines / gives a description of _________ |
At the very beginning of the article the author says __. The next part of the article is devoted to ______. Much attention is given to _________. The author points out______________ explains ________ emphasizes ______ It’s necessary to note __ It’s interesting to mark __ to emphasize______ to point out ______ |
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Conclusion A (general) conclusion is made as to (concerning) ___ It is concluded that _____ The article is intended for ___________ / may be of interest to __________ / presents particular (special) interest to __ |
The author comes to the conclusion / resumes/ asserts that ___________. In conclusion the author states that / summarises the main points ______ The article presents definite (some, no, great) interest to __________ . It could be recommended to professionals, specialists, in the sphere of _____, to the wide range of readers, whoever cares. |
The author draws the conclusion that _____ The article is designed (intended) for ________ |