Metodichka_-_Anglysky_yazyk

Gene-Environment Interaction

1 Can we then assume that our personality is merely a product of our genes? No, because genes and environment—nature and nurture—work together like two hands clapping. Among our similarities, the most important—the behavioral hallmark of our species—is our enormous adaptive capacity. Some human traits, such as having two eyes, develop the same in virtually every environment. But other traits are expressed only in particular environments. Go barefoot for a summer and you will develop toughened, callused feet—a biological adaptation to friction. Meanwhile, your shod neighbor will remain tenderfoot. The difference between the two of you is, of course, an effect of environment. But it is also the product of a biological mechanism— adaptation. Our shared biology enables our developed diversity (Buss, 1991).

2 Genes are self-regulating. Rather than acting as blueprints that lead to the same result no matter the context, genes react. An African butterfly that is green in summer turns brown in fall, thanks to a temperature - controlled genetic switch. The genes that produce brown in one situation produce green in another. So, too, people with identical genes but differing experiences will have similar but not identical minds. One twin may fall in love with someone quite different from the co-twin’s love.

3 Asking whether our personality is more a product of our genes or our environment is like asking whether the area of a field is more the result of its length or its width. We could, however, ask whether the differing areas of various fields are more the result of differences in their length or their width, and also whether person-to- person personality differences are influenced more by nature or nurture. To say that genes and experience are both important is true. But more precisely, they interact. Imagine two babies, one genetically predisposed to be easy-going, sociable, and attractive, the other less so. Assume further that the first baby elicits more affectionate and stimulating care than the second and so develops

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into a warmer and more outgoing person. As the two children grow older, the more naturally outgoing child more often seeks activities and friends that encourage further social confidence.

4 What has caused their resulting personality differences? Neither heredity nor experience dances alone. Environments trigger gene activity. (Scientists are now exploring environmental influences on when particular genes generate proteins.) Our genetically influenced traits—the other partner in the dance—also evoke significant responses in others. Thus, a child’s impulsivity and aggression may evoke an angry response from a teacher who otherwise reacts warmly to the child’s model classmates. Parents, too, may treat their own children differently; one child elicits punishment, another does not. In such cases, the child’s nature and the parents’ nurture interact. Neither operates apart from the other.

Gene and scene dance together. Evocative interactions may help explain why identical twins reared in different families recall their parents’ warmth as remarkably similar—almost as similar as if they had had the same parents (Plomin et al., 1988, 1991, 1994). Fraternal twins have more differing recollections of their early family life— even if reared in the same family! “Children experience us as different parents, depending on their own qualities,” noted Sandra

Scarr (1990). Moreover, a selection effect may be at work. As we grow older we select environments well suited to our natures.

5 So, from conception onward, we are the product of a cascade of interactions between our genetic predispositions and our surrounding environments. Depending on our traits, we actively select certain environments. And we evoke reactions from our environments. Thus, our genes affect how people react to and influence us. Biological traits have social consequences. So, forget nature versus nurture; think nature via nurture. [17, p. 111-112]

Ex. 7 In Text 3 find collocations that mean:

1.the ability to adapt

2.change dictated by genes

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3.likely to have some feature due to heredity

4.cause action

5.provoke a reaction

6.reaction to an action provided by society

Text 4

Ex. 8 Look through the text and complete the title.

A________ and I_______________

What happens to our broader intellectual powers as we age? Do they gradually decline, as does our ability to recall new material? Or do they remain constant, as does our ability to recognize meaningful material?

Whether intelligence increases or decreases with age depends on the type of intellectual performance we measure. Crystallized intelligence—our accumulated knowledge as reflected in vocabulary and analogies tests—increases up to old age. Fluid intelligence—our ability to reason speedily and abstractly, as when solving novel logic problems—decreases slowly up to age 75 or so, then more rapidly, especially after age 85 (Cattell, 1963; Horn, 1982). We can see this pattern in the intelligence scores of a national sample of adults (Kaufman et al., 1989). After adjustments for education, verbal scores (which reflect crystallized intelligence) held relatively steady from ages 20 to 74. Nonverbal, puzzle-solving intelligence declined.

So, with age, we lose and we win. We lose recall memory and processing speed, but we gain vocabulary and knowledge (Park et al., 2002). Our decisions also become less distorted by negative emotions such as anxiety, depression, and anger (Blanchard-Fields, 2007; Carstensen & Mikels, 2005). These cognitive differences help explain why mathematicians and scientists produce much of their most creative work during their late twenties or early thirties, whereas those in literature, history, and philosophy tend to produce their best work in their forties, fifties, and beyond, after accumulating

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more knowledge (Simonton, 1988, 1990). For example, poets (who depend on fluid intelligence) reach their peak output earlier than prose authors (who need a deeper knowledge reservoir), a finding observed in every major literary tradition, for both living and dead languages.

Recently, psychologists who study the aging mind have been debating whether “brain-fitness” computer training programs can stave off cognitive decline. Given what we know about the brain’s plasticity, can using our brains—with memory, visual speed, and problem-solving exercises—avert losing our minds? “At every point in life, the brain’s natural plasticity gives us the ability to improve how our brains function,” says neuroscientist-entrepreneur Michael Merzenich (2007). With support from the National Institutes of Health and the National Institute on Aging, researchers are exploring possible benefits of cognitive training (Mahncke et al., 2006). One five-year study of nearly 3000 people in six cities found that 10 one hour cognitive training sessions, with follow-up booster sessions a year (and more) later, led to improved cognitive scores on tests related to their training (Boron et al., 2007; Willis et al., 2006). Based on such findings, some computer game makers are marketing daily brain-exercise programs for the elderly. But Timothy Salthouse (2006, 2007), a veteran researcher of cognitive aging, advises caution. The available evidence, he contends, does not indicate that the benefits of brain-mind exercise programs generalize to other tasks.

Despite age-related cognitive changes, studies in several countries indicate that age is only a modest predictor of abilities such as memory and intelligence. Mental ability more strongly correlates with proximity to death. Tell me whether someone is 70, 80, or 90, and you haven’t told me much about the person’s mental sharpness.

But if you tell me whether someone is 8 months or 8 years from death, regardless of age, you’ll give me a better clue to the person’s mental ability. Especially in the last three or four years of life, cognitive decline typically accelerates (Wilson et al., 2007).

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Researchers call this near-death drop terminal decline (Backman & MacDonald, 2006).[17, p. 167-168]

Ex. 9 Read Text 4 again and choose the most appropriate answer a, b, c, or d.

1.Crystallized intelligence is

a.the ability to deal with numbers.

b.understanding of the natural phenomena.

c.the ability to solve puzzles.

d.accumulated knowledge.

2.Abstract thinking _______ with age. The ability to draw analogies

_______ with age.

a.decreases, increases

b.decreases, decreases

c.increases, increases

d.increases, decreases

3.The best works in humanities were created by authors

a.in their early twenties.

b.in their late twenties.

c.in their thirties.

d.older than 40.

4.Brain-training exercises

a.improve cognitive abilities, as research shows.

b.might only improve the ability to do a limited set of cognitive tasks.

c.might only improve the ability to do puzzles.

d.according to research, do not work.

5.Cognitive abilities decline quickly

a.shortly before one's life is terminated.

b.after a person is 75.

c.when a person is diseased.

d.after one retires or decreases mental load.

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Text 5

Ex. 10 Read the text and fill in the gaps with one of the sentences below. You do not have to use one of them.

A They are uncertain how to act and report feeling (p. 254) ‘funny, awkward, foolish, nervous, surprised, and self-conscious’.

B It is caused by enlargement of surface capillaries.

C An embarrassed human, e.g. assuming a hunched posture, has similarities to other species in appeasement.

D Even the greatest and apparently most self-confident can suffer from a level of moral emotion that seems malfunctional.

E In evolution and development, they emerge later than such ‘basic’ emotions as fear and anger.

Embarrassment, Guilt and Shame

Embarrassment, guilt and shame can be placed under the heading of ‘moral emotions’ (Adolphs, 2003). 1. _______ This exemplifies that the sequence of events appearing within individual development (ontogeny) is often similar to its appearance in evolution (phylogeny). Such ‘newly-emerging’ emotions are inherently social in nature and thought to serve social cohesion.

So-called ‘violations of social conventions’, e.g. belching, trigger an emotion of embarrassment that is distinct from shame, fear and guilt (Keltner and Buswell, 1997). People perceive that they have little control over such a situation, which arises by accident rather than intention. 2. _______ Embarrassment is accompanied by smiles, laughter, disturbances to speech, shifting eye positions, a

‘rigid slouched posture’, aversion and a so-called ‘silly smile’.

Blushing consists of a reddening of the face, neck, ears and the upper regions of the chest. 3. _______

Is the autonomic adjustment that is associated with embarrassment characteristic of just this emotion? Blood flow to the cheek increased more when people were placed in an embarrassing

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situation than one associated with fear. Embarrassment is associated with a reduction in heart-rate, suggestive of a move towards parasympathetic and away from sympathetic activation.

Darwin (1872/1934) referred to blushing as (p.153) ‘the most human of all expressions’, suggesting something uniquely human. However, Keltner and Buswell (1997) see human embarrassment as part of evolutionary continuity, which is related to social appeasement in non-humans. 4. _______ A dominant conspecific showing threat is the trigger for a subordinate’s appeasement and a threat to social identity triggers embarrassment. In group-living species, appeasement sends signals to a conspecific that might serve to restore social stability. The evolutionary roots could lie in embarrassment being a gesture of submission that restores social stability by evoking sympathy in others or at least deflects hostility. [27, p. 320-321]

Ex. 11 Mark the statements T (true), F (false) or NS (not stated in the test).

1.The development of emotions within an individual is similar to evolutionary development.

2.Social emotions developed after such basic emotions as fear or anger.

3.Embarrassment, like shame, can be consciously controlled.

4.Children are more susceptible to emotional reactions.

5.When you blush, only your face and ears redden.

6.Embarrassment may play a social role and arouse compassion.

Text 6

Ex. 12 Read the paragraphs (A-F) and put them in a logical order to make a text.

1___; 2___; 3___; 4___; 5___; 6____

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Learned Helplessness

A It is worthwhile to analyze our own behavior in terms of learned helplessness. For example, one of the authors of this book was only a middling French student. He became convinced that he simply did not have the ability to learn a foreign language adequately. One day his French teacher confirmed his impression by telling him that she could tell from the kinds of mistakes he made that he had little foreign-language learning ability. He stopped trying in the course, which just reinforced the futility of his efforts. He was convinced he was unable to master foreign languages, and he never took another foreign-language course during his school years. He experienced learned helplessness.

B In contrast, consider the behavior of a second group of dogs, which did not have the previous experience of being unable to escape. These dogs were placed in the cage, and the shock was turned on. At first, the dogs ran around frantically. Eventually they saw the barrier and jumped over it, escaping the shock. On subsequent trials, when the shock was turned on, they quickly jumped over the barrier, minimizing the time that they felt pain. It is evident that the first group of dogs' feelings of helplessness rendered them unable to learn.

C Ask yourself whether you are missing out on opportunities just because you have convinced yourself that you cannot take advantage of them. You may find, as the author did, that you really can do "impossible" things if you just set your mind to them.

D Some types of conditioning, particularly punishment, may lead to a serious negative consequence: the phenomenon of learned helplessness. Learned helplessness occurs when an individual is conditioned to escape punishment by doing nothing at all. Consider an example. In a classic experiment, Martin Seligman and S. F. Maier (Seligman, 1975; Seligman & Maier, 1967) placed dogs in a chamber where they received painful (but not harmful) electric shocks. The dogs were unable to escape the shocks. Later, the chamber was divided into two parts. The dogs could then escape the

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shock simply by jumping over a barrier that separated the electrified part from the non-electrified part. Because the dogs had previously learned that they could not escape, however, they made no effort to escape. Instead, they just whined.

E As an adult, his work required him to learn Spanish. He learned it quite easily because it was taught by a method that better fit his learning style than the way he had been taught French. He realized that he had incorrectly learned to feel helpless about his language-learning skills. With dedication and a style of teaching that fit his needs, he could learn a new language.

F Unfortunately, humans, too, are susceptible to learned helplessness. We try something; we fail. Maybe we try again and fail again. Soon we have learned to believe that we cannot perform that task or master that skill, so we never try again. The child who fails in school, the adult who fails on the job, the lover who fails to sustain a lasting romantic relationship-all of these people are susceptible to learned helplessness. Our conditioning may tell us that we cannot succeed. Some people stop accepting challenges because they feel sure that they cannot cope with them. Some researchers believe that many emotional and behavioral problems can be in part explained through learned helplessness (Sutherland, Singh, Conroy, & Stichter, 2004). Furthermore, students who encounter learning difficulties are more prone to learned helplessness (Hersh, Stone, & Ford, 1996).

[25, p. 257-258]

Text 7

Ex. 13 Read the text and choose the correct answer a, b, c, or d.

Phineas Gage

Phineas Gage, who is perhaps the most famous case in the history of biological psychology, must 1. _______ born in 1823 in East Lebanon, New Hampshire. He was a shrewd and well-respected

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foreman of a gang of railroad workers, blasting rock for the construction of a line in Vermont.

In 1848, as a result of an explosion going wrong, a tamping iron, 3 cm in diameter, 2. _____ through his brain, causing extensive damage to the front part on the left and some damage to the right (Damasio, 1996; Macmillan, 1986). It landed some 30 m away.

Amazingly, Gage survived the accident and showed relatively little intellectual or linguistic impairment. 3. ______, he became more egocentric, obstinate and capricious than before and adopted foul language. This suggests that parts of the brain concerned with emotional expression 4. _________ by the damaged regions.

Damage lifted the restraint. His doctor wrote: ‘The equilibrium or balance, so to speak, between his intellectual faculties and his animal propensities, 5. ______ have been destroyed’ (quoted by Macmillan,

1986). Phineas Gage died in San Francisco in 1861 but his skull 6._______ from the rest of his body and, together with the tamping iron, put on exhibition in a museum in Massachusetts. [27, p. 8]

1.a. be; b. been; c. have; d. have been.

2.a. passed; b. has passed; c. was passed; d. has been passed.

3.a. Likewise; b. However; c. Finally; d. Additionally.

4.a. previously restrained; b. had been previously restrained;

c. has been previously restrained; d. had previously restrained.

5.a. may; b. might; c. ought to; d. must.

6.a. removed; b. has removed; c. was removed; d. had been removed.

Ex. 14 Go to http://ed.ted.com/lessons/what-is-the-heisenberg- uncertainty-principle-chad-orzel#watch to watch a video on Consciousness. Use navigation on the right to switch to exercises and additional materials.

Ex. 15 Go to http://ed.ted.com/lessons/should-you-trust-your-first- impression-peter-mende-siedlecki to watch a video on Impressions.

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