Metodichka_-_Anglysky_yazyk

considered many factors. Some gender differences in spatial abilities might be related to the fact that more males play with construction sets and video games, which hone these skills. That is, boys' toys and play activities might place greater developmental emphasis on spatial skills. Boys often are more encouraged by adults to explore their environments than girls are (Bornstein, Haynes, Pascual, Painter, & Galperin, 1999; Lindow, Wilkinson, & Peterson, 1985), and hence may develop visual-spatial skills more readily. Indeed, young girls with interests in stereotypically male activities grow up to have greater spatial abilities than other girls (Newcombe & Dubas, 1992).

C There is evidence that some sex differences may have a biological basis ( Halpern, 1992, 2000; Halpern et ai., 2007; Kimura, 2007). Prenatal sex hormones such as testosterone are known to affect the development of gender differences in the brain. High levels of male hormones during development of a female fetus, for example, have been shown to increase spatial abilities in females. Male fetuses that do not respond appropriately to male hormones during fetal development develop certain female psychological characteristics, such as higher levels of verbal than spatial ability. Some researchers believe that gender differences may in part be explained by differential brain lateralization in males and females. Testosterone affects the development of the right and left hemispheres of the brain, and males have more lateralization of their brains than females do (Hiscock, Inch, Hawryluk, Lyon, & Perachio, 1999; Hiscock, Perachio, & Inch, 200 1; Kee, Gottfried, Bathurst, & Brown, 1987; Meinschaefer, Hausmann, & Guentuerkuen, 1999). Verbal skills are more left hemisphere related for males than for females. For females, verbal skills tend to involve the use of both hemispheres, and many spatial abilities originate in the right hemisphere.

D Observed differences between males and females may come about as a result of biological, genetically based factors or as a result of differences in how female and male children are raised in our culture (or both). One study asked people to rate the behavior of a baby in terms of how exploratory and active the baby was (Condry,

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1984; Condry & Condry, 1976; Condry & Ross, 1985). Some people rated a baby dressed in a blue outfit and others rated a baby dressed in pink. The blue-suited baby was rated as more active and exploratory and as exhibiting typically male behaviors. The catch was that all people rated exactly the same baby! Clearly, cultural expectations of male versus female behavior influenced how people perceived the baby's behavior.

E Traditionally, it was the case that math and science classes provided a more encouraging atmosphere for boys than for girls - boys historically asked more questions in these classes and received more teacher attention, and boys generally dominated the math and science scene (Broome, 2001; Handley & Morse, 1984; Reis & Park, 2001; Trusty, 2002) Today, however, women enroll in as many challenging math courses as do men in high school, and women earn higher grades in these courses. Some argue that the competitive grading and solitary work often found in such courses are especially amenable to the male working style (Eccles, Wigfield, Harold, & Blumenfeld, 1993), but it is clear that women are achieving in math classes despite the fact that they do not later pursue math-based careers (Ceci & Williams, 2007). Females may prefer socially cooperative styles of working and may be doing better today than historically in math and science because these subjects now tend to be taught from a perspective of group project work. By contrast, boys typically get more experience in competitive activities, even as early as the preschool years (Tassi & Schneider, 1997). Furthermore, despite the ability of many females to speak more fluently than males, males often dominate interactions with females as well as the decisions that are reached (Lockheed, 1986; Tannen, 1990, 1997).

F In terms of math performance on standardized tests and later selection of careers involving math, our culture obviously encourages boys more than girls (Halpern, 1992, 2000, 2007; She, 2000; Tiedemann, 2000, 2002). Most math teachers have higher expectations for boys than for girls. Our society as a whole expects math to be tough for girls - a doll marketed in the early 1990s even said out loud, "Math classes are hard!" Think about how these

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messages affect little girls, who early in their lives form notions about their math competence and attitudes toward math that may persist throughout their lives. Expert teachers can make a substantial difference in providing equality of opportunity and experiences to both girls and boys by having the same high expectations for members of each sex.

G Teachers are as likely as anyone else to possess subtle gender-related expectations and biases. Understanding the basis of male-female differences helps the expert teacher to cope with differences in a positive manner.

H Another biological influence on females' performance is the pattern of hormonal changes during the menstrual cycle ( Hampson & Kimura, 1988; Kimura, 2000; Kimura & Hampson, 1994; McEwen, Alves, Bulloch, & Weiland, 1998). During menstruation, when female hormones are at their lowest levels all month, women do better on tasks on which males are usually superior, such as map problems, mazes, and visual-spatial problems. By contrast, when female hormones peak at midcycle, females do even better on tasks on which they are usually superior, such as verbal fluency (Hampson, 1990, 2002; Hampson & Kimura, 1988).

I Cultural and social attitudes and stereotypes that shape how a girl grows into a woman and how a boy grows into a man are everywhere in our society. Put bluntly, little boys and girls are treated differently. They grow up exposed to different values, lessons, morals, encouragements, and expectations. Traditionally, in North American culture, females have been enculturated to have lowered expectations for scholastic performance and ultimate career success compared with males ( Halpern, 1992, 2000, 2007; Stroh & Reilly, 1999). Men are shown occupying the positions of greatest income, prestige, and influence in magazines, newspapers, books, movies, television, and so on. As they grow up, boys are encouraged more than girls to set their sights high and have high aspirations. This trend characterizes most cultures encountered in North American classrooms of today. In fact, some of the cultures of immigrant

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groups stress achievement more strongly than does the dominant culture, and especially the achievement of boys. [25, p. 216-219]

Listening

Ex. 19 Discuss the questions:

1.What is intelligence?

2.What types of intelligence are there, in your opinion?

Ex. 20 Listen to an extract from a lecture and write down the seven types of intelligence [6].

Ex. 21 Listen to the extract again and choose a, b, or c.

1.Questionnaires on learning styles help understand

a.how to identify information.

b.how you learn best.

c.how to systematise and reflect on information.

2.According to Howard Gardner,

a.every human is intelligent, but in a unique way.

b.everyone is intelligent, but you have to find it out.

c.everyone cannot be intelligent.

3.Howard Gardner agreed there can be other types of intelligence, not only the seven he suggested.

a.True;

b.false;

c.not stated.

4.The interpersonal intelligence is about:

a.finding the way with other people.

b.being sensitive and sensible.

c.being able to listen without interrupting.

5.If you have musical intelligence,

a.you like listening to music.

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b.you can play music.

c.you are able to remember and repeat rhythm.

6.Intropersonally intelligent people can

a.understand others.

b.understand oneself.

c.understand the world.

7.The ability to see logical patterns characterises an individual who is intelligent

a.linguistically.

b.mathematically.

c.kinaesthetically.

8.Naturalist intelligence could be reflected in the ability

a.to differentiate animals from insects.

b.to organise the knowledge of the world.

c.to categorise animals and plants into species.

9.The lecturer emphasises that

a.knowing your learning style can make your learning effective.

b.he needs to discuss learner autonomy in more detail.

c.increasing self-awareness is important.

To find out your intelligences you can go to http://www.literacynet.org/mi/assessment/findyourstrengths.html .

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Self-Study

Strategy Point

To become an autonomous learner, do the following:

1.Notice new words and structures when listening and reading.

2.Learn from mistakes. Notice and make a note of the error you have made.

3.Notice a gap in your knowledge and consult your teacher or some other resource on how you can fill it in.

Text 1

Ex. 1 Read the text and fill in the table.

Memory

With reference particularly to humans, a way of dividing memory is into declarative memory and non-declarative memory (Squire, 1994). A declarative memory is for a fact or an event in the world, e.g. Paris is the capital of France. We have conscious access to it, and having retrieved it into consciousness, can choose whether to express it in behaviour (Schacter and Tulving,1994). The term

‘declarative’ means that humans can verbally declare its content.

Declarative memory corresponds to the most common lay use of

‘memory’ and ‘to remember’ (Squire, 1994). Declarative memories can be acquired rapidly, e.g. in a single exposure (Moscovitch, 1994) and used in an indefinite series of different and novel situations (Eichenbaum, 1994).

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Is there a non-human model of declarative memory? Of course, rats cannot literally declare anything but they can be set tasks that require forms of memory that appear similar to human equivalents. The radial maze tests the ability to learn and recall a particular instance of experience and to use it in the control of behaviour.

Another term that means much the same as declarative memory is explicit memory. We can be verbally explicit about the content. Since the ability to verbalize recall is the criterion for

‘explicit’, strictly speaking, it is applicable only to humans

(Eichenbaum, 1994).

In contrast to declarative/explicit memory is nondeclarative memory or implicit memory (Claparède, 1911; Squire, 1994). It cannot be expressed or ‘declared’ verbally. Being able to ride a bicycle exemplifies non-declarative memory. The distinction is between knowing ‘what’ (e.g. the explicit memory that Paris is the French capital) and knowing ‘how’ (e.g. the implicit memory of how to use chopsticks).

Skills and habits involve non-declarative memory. Nondeclarative memory is also termed procedural memory and is automatic and unconscious (Eichenbaum, 1994; Schacter and Tulving, 1994b). Conscious awareness has, at best, a vague and fuzzy insight into such memory. Its contents cannot be described as true or false but only as more or less adaptive in a given situation. Procedural memories are usually acquired slowly and incrementally

(see O’Keefe and Nadel, 1978).

It is doubtful whether there are tasks that involve purely either explicit/declarative or implicit/procedural memory (Eichenbaum, 1994). All tasks probably require something of each. The question is perhaps best framed as some tasks being more or less dependent upon one or other system. [27, p. 293-294]

Ex. 2 Read Text 1 again and choose the most appropriate answer a, b, c, or d.

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1.Where are events and facts stored?

a.declarative memory

b.non-declarative memory

c.consciousness

d.subconsciousness

2.How fast can a fact or event be remembered?

a.after multiple exposures

b.even after a person came across it once

c.13 or more repetitions are usually needed

d.less than 13 repetitions are usually needed

3.Why is declarative memory also called explicit?

a.because it has been explicitly described

b.because its content can be described in verbs

c.because any fact can be explained in words

d.because it allows people to communicate verbally

4.Which questions do explicit and implicit memories answer?

a.the former - “how”, the latter - “what”

b.the former - “what”, the latter - “how”

c.both answer the question “what”

d.both answer the question “how”

5.Which characteristics does implicit memory have?

a.it is conscious and automatic

b.it is unconscious and automatic

c.it is conscious and adaptive

d.it is acquired and can be verbalised

Ex. 3 Match the words to make collocations. Different combinations are possible. Check with the text.

Text 2

Ex. 4 Read the text and complete the heading.

___________, Emotion and __________

Odours are sometimes thought to have a more direct 1.

________ to mood and emotion than do other sensory qualities. Compared with visual and 2. ________ events, descriptions of odours have a more direct emotional label and 3. ________ possibly a more personal ‘meaning’ (Ehrlichman and Bastone, 1992).

It 4. _______ be that odours have more direct access to emotional processing, though cognitive factors (e.g. knowledge of what is the physical 5. _______ giving rise to the odour) also play a role in labelling an odour. It is commonly said that odours have a peculiar ability to 6. _______ emotion-laden memories from childhood. However, psychology lacks controlled studies showing that such odour-triggered 7. _______ are more potent than, say, visually cued memories. Since the trigger cues for any such odour → memory → emotion link would necessarily be personal and idiosyncratic, perhaps it is impossible to do formal research in this 8.

_______.

In humans, anecdotal reports suggest that odour can influence mood, contributing to well-being (G.N. Martin, 1996) and some experimental 9. _______ points in the same direction (Lehrner et al., 2005). If psychological benefits 10. ________ to volatile chemicals, this is valuable no matter what the mechanism. However, it is not always certain that the route of such effects is via the olfactory system. Chemicals could be absorbed into the bloodstream via the lungs or through the skin in the case of massage oils and thereby influence the nervous system (Ehrlichman and Bastone, 1992).

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From a functional 11. _______, it might make sense for unpleasant odours to trigger negative mood. Odours such as those deriving from rotting food are a sign of danger. Negative mood could motivate moving from the location. [27, p. 246-248]

Ex. 5 Read the text again and fill in the gaps with an appropriate word from the box. You do not have to use all of them.

Ex. 6 Read the text and match the paragraphs to the main ideas below. You do not have to use one of them.

A Genes and environment impact each other, and there is no reason to separate them.

B The formative nurture that conspires with nature begins at conception.

C Nature and nurture cannot be separated because humans constantly have to adapt.

D Nature and nurture are interwoven, therefore the question “Nature or nurture?” has to be paraphrased.

E Genes are subject to modification, they adapt an organism to the environment.

F Though heredity and experience interact, a person may want to choose the environment to suit their character.

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