22. Класифікація приголосних в англійській мові за артикуляцією (The articulatory classification of the English consonants).

The system of the English consonants was thoroughly investigated by well-known British, Russian and Ukrainian phoneticians: Henry Sweet, Daniel Jones, V. A Vassilyev, V.Shcherba and others.

The articulatory classification of the English consonants can be described according to the following criteria:

1) active organ(s) of speech and the place of obstruction;

2) type or kind of articulatory obstruction and manner of noise production.

1. According to the active organ(s) of speech and the place of obstruction we distinguish: labial consonants (bilabial – p, b, m, w and labio-dental – f, v); lingual consonants (forelingual-interdental - ð, θ; forelingual-alveolar – t, d, n, l; forelingual-post alveolar – r; forelingual-palato-alveolar - ∫, ʒ, t∫, d ʒ; medio-lingual-palatal – j; back lingual-velar – k, g, ŋ; pharyngeal-glotal – h.

2. According to the type or kind of articulatory obstruction and manner of noise production we distinguish occlusives, constrictives and affricates.

1) occlusive vowels are divided into: plosives and nasal sonorants. E.g.: p, b, t, d, k, g; m, n, ŋ.

2) constrictive vowels are divided into frivatives and sonorants. E.g.: f,v, ð, θ, s,z,∫, ʒ, h; w, l, r, j.

3) affricates are t∫, d ʒ.

23. Асиміляція як універсальна характерна ознака розмовної мови. Типи асиміляції за ступенем (Assimilation as a universal feature of spoken language. Types of assimilation according to the degree).

Assimilation is modification of a consonant under the influence of the neighbouring consonant. During assimilation a given consonant (the assimilating C) takes on the characteristics of a neighbouring consonant (the conditioning C). Aassimilation is a universal feature of spoken language. In English it can be both within words and between words.

Types of assimilation can be described according to two principles. They are:

1. according to the degree of assimilation;

2. according to the position in a word.

1. According to the degree of assimilation. The assimilating consonant takes on the characteristics of the neighbouring consonant. We distinguish partial and total assimilation.

1) Partial assimilation. The assimilating consonant takes on some characteristics of the neighbouring consonant. In the phrase ten bikes, the normal form in colloquial speech would be /tem baiks/, not /ten baiks/. In this case, the assimilation has been partial: the /n/ has fallen under the influence of the following /b/ and has adopted its bilabiality, becoming /m/. It has not, however adopted its plosiveness.

2) Total assimilation. The assimilating consonant takes on all characteristics of the neighbouring consonant.

The assimilation is total in ten mice /tem mais/, where the /n/ is now identical with /m/.

24. Типи асиміляції за позицією у слові (Types of assimilation according to the position in a word)

According to the direction we distinguish three types of assimilation. They are: regressive, progressive and coalescent.

1. Regressive assimilation: the sound changes due to the influence of the following sound, e.g. ten bikes. Another example of regressive assimilation is reflected in the English spelling system - in the four variants of the French negative suffix in, e.g.:

indifferent, impossible, irregular, illegal, etc.

It takes place in rapid native speaker’s speech, e.g.:

/s/+/j/ =/∫/, e.g. horseshoe, his shirt

/z/+/j/=/ʒ/, hosiery.

With a stop C, a final /t/ or /d/ may assimilate to a following initial /p/, /k/, or /b/, /g/, e.g.: good boy, good girl, at peace, etc.

It can be in informal speech, e.g.

Could you give me a call? Let me do that for you.

/m:/ /m:/

2. Progressive assimilation: the consonant changes because of he influence of the preceding consonant, e. g. lunch score articulated with /s/ becomes /∫/ under the influence of /t∫/. They can be in some contractions, e.g. it’s, that’s.

3. Coalescent assimilation is a type of reciprocal assimilation: the first consonant and the second consonant in a cluster fuse and mutually condition the creation of a third consonant with features from both original consonants.

E.g.:

t + j = /ʧ/ Is that your dog?, virtue, statue

d + j = /dʒ/ Would you mind moving? education, during

s + j = /∫/ issue, He is coming this year.

z + j= /ʒ/ Does your mother know it?