12. The classification of the simple sentences according to the structure

According to their structure simple sentences are divided into two-member and one-member sentences.

A two-member sentence has two members – a subject and a predicate. If one of them is missing, it can be easily understood from the context. E.g.: Every day after classes I go to the University library to prepare for seminars.

A two-member sentence may be complete or incomplete. It is complete when it has both a subject and a predicate. E.g.: I can’t help loving you, Kyiv! It is incomplete when one of the principal parts or both of them are missing. They can be easily understood from the context. Such sentences are called elliptical. They are mostly used in colloquial speech and especially in a dialogue. E.g.: Where were you yesterday? At the cinema.

A one-member sentence is a sentence having only one member which is neither the subject nor the predicate. They are generally used in descriptions and in emotional speech. If the main part of a one-member sentence is expressed by a noun, the sentence is called nominal. E.g.: Freedom Bells ringing out, flowers, kisses, wine.

Simple sentences, both two-member and one-member, can be unexpended and extended. A sentence consisting only of the principal part is called an unexpended sentence. E.g.: She is a student. Birds fly. Winter!

An extended sentence is a sentence consisting of the subject, the predicate and one or more secondary parts (objects, attributes, or adverbial modifiers). The students spoke English to their teacher.

13. The compound sentence and types of coordination

In compound sentences, the clauses have equal rights, and they are coordinated. We can distinguish the following types of coordination: copulative, disjunctive, adversative and causative-consecutive.

1. Copulative coordination (єднальний зв’язок) is expressed by the conjunctions “and, nor, neither … nor, not only … but, (also)”. The statement expressed in one clause is simply added to that expressed in the other. E.g.: It was a nice little place and Mr. and Mrs. Wills were rather proud of it.

2. Disjunctive coordination (розділовий зв’язок) is expressed by the conjunctions “or, else, or else, either … or”, and the conjunctive adverb “otherwise”. By these a choice is offered between the statements expressed in two clauses, e.g.: He knew it to be no sense or it would frighten him.

3. Adversative coordination (протиставний зв’язок) is expressed by the conjunctions “but, while, whereas” and the conjunctive adverbs “nevertheless, still, yet”. They connect clauses contrasting in meaning. E.g.: The room was dark, but the street was lighter because of its lamps.

4. Causative–consecutive coordination (причинно-наслідковий зв’язок) is expressed by the conjunctions “for, so” and the conjunctive adverbs “therefore, accordingly, consequently, hence”. E.g.: The two of them belonged to the same trade, so the talk was easy and happy between them.

14. The complex sentence and types of subordinate clauses

In complex sentences, clauses are not equal. One of them is the main (or principle) clause, and the other is a subordinate clause.

The traditional classification of subordinate clauses is based on the similarity of their functions with those of parts of the sentence. They are: subject, predicative, object, attributive and adverbial subordinate clauses.

1. Subject clauses perform the function of the subject to the predicate of the main clause. E.g.: What I want to do is to save us both.

2. Predicative clauses perform the function of a predicate. In the main clause we find only part of the predicate. E.g.: But the chief reason is that he will never come here again.

3. Object clauses perform the function of an object to the predicate-verb of the main clause. E.g.: I don’t know what you are talking about.

4. Attributive clauses serve as an attribute to a noun (pronoun) in the main clause. E.g.: My brother, who is fifteen, cannot drive.

5. Adverbial clauses perform the function of an adverbial modifier. They can modify a verb, an adjective or an adverb in the main clause. We distinguish different types of adverbial clauses/ They are the following:

1). Adverbial clause of time shows the time of the action expressed in the main clause. E.g.: You can stay here as long as you want.

2). Adverbial clause of place shows the place of the action expressed in the main clause. E.g.: I looked where she pointed.

3). Adverbial clause of cause (reason) shows the cause of the action expressed in the main clause. E.g.: She didn’t go to see the film yesterday because she had seen it before.

4). Adverbial clause of purpose states the purpose of the action expressed in the main clause. E.g.: He was speaking very slowly so that everybody could understand.

5). Adverbial clause of condition states the condition which is necessary for the realization of the action expressed in the main clause. E.g.: I will do anything if it is in my power.

6). Adverbial clause of concession denotes the presence of some obstacle which nevertheless does not hinder the action expressed in the main clause. E.g.: I enjoyed that day though it was cold.

7). Adverbial clause of result denotes the result of the action expressed in the main clause. E.g.: He is so weak physically that he can hardly move.

8). Adverbial clause of manner characterizes in a general way the action expressed in the main clause. In adverbial clause of manner the idea of comparison is often implied. E.g.: She did exactly as he told her.

9). Adverbial clause of comparison denotes an action with which the action of the main clause is compared. E.g.: We were going up the road as fast as we could.