29. Типи словесного наголосу в англійській мові (Types of English word stress)

І). Types of English word stress according to its degree. One of the ways of differentiating the prominence of syllables is the degree of stress. British, Russian and Ukrainian phoneticians such as Danial Jones, Richard Kingdon, Vassilyev, Shcherba and others consider that there are three degrees of word-stress in Eng1ish They are: primary, secondary and weak.

1. Primary degree is the strongest one, e.g.: ˏde-le-ˊga-ti-on;

2. Secondary degree is the second strongest one or partial, e.g.: ˏde-le-ˊga-ti-on;

3. Weak degree – all the other degrees, e.g.: ˏde-le-ˊga-ti-on.

The syllables having either primary or secondary stress are termed stressed. The syllables with weak stress are called unstressed.

The stress in a word may be on the last syllable, it is called the ult; on the next-to-last (the second from the end), it is called the penult; on the third syllable from the end, it is called the antepenult.

2.) Types of English word stress according to its position. Languages of the world which make a linguistic use of stress fall into one of the two types. They are: fixed lexical stress and free lexical stress.

1) Fixed lexical stress is locating the word-stress predominantly on a given syllabic location in the word.

2) Free lexical stress is allowing much more freedom for placement the stress.

The languages with fixed lexical stress are: Tatar, French, Finnish, Czech, Polish, etc.

The languages with free lexical stress are: Dutch, English, Greek, Italian, Romanian, Russian, Ukrainian, Spanish, Swedish, etc.

On the first	On the second	On the third	On the fourth, etc.
׳mother 'озеро	o'ccasion noгóда	employ 'ее мoлoкó	exami ׳nation кoмyнiка́цiя

30. Функції словесного наголосу в англійській мові (English word stress functions).

Word stress in a language performs the following functions:

1. The CONSTITUTIVE function: it organizes the syllables of a word into a language unit having a definite accentual structure. The word does not exist as a lexical unit without word stress. E.g.: ˏde-le-ˊga-ti-on;

2. The IDENTIFICATORY function: correct lexical stress enables the listener to decode the information in verbal communication adequately. Misplaced word stresses prevent understanding. E.g.: preˊpare but not ˊprepare

3 The DISTINCTIVE/CONTRASTIVE function: word stress is capable to differentiate the meanings of words or their forms. There are lots of pairs of words of identical spelling in English which can be either as nouns or as verbs, e.g.: 'import (noun) -im'port (verb), 'insult (noun) –in'sult (verb).

31. Onomatopoeia as one of the phonetic expressive means

Onomatopoeia is a combination of sounds which aims at imitating natural sounds: wind wailing, sea murmuring, rustling of leaves, bursts of thunder. Words which represent this figure of speech have sound similarity with the things they describe: buzz, roar bang, hiss, sizzle, twitter, pop, swish, burble, cuckoo, splash. Animal calls and sounds of insects are made by onomatopoeia in all languages. For example, cock-a-doodle-do! is the English representation for a roster’s cry. Interestingly, the Ukrainians and the French represent this imitation as кукуріку and cocorico. It is different from the English variant. Although logic tells us that the roster’s cry is the same across the world. It means that onomatopoeia is not an exact reproduction of natural sounds but a subjective phenomenon.

Onomatopoeia is used for emphasis or stylistic effect. It is extensively featured in children’s rhymes and poetry.