- •Three main periods in the history of the English language.
- •2. The Anglo-Saxon invasion and its influence on the development of the English language.
- •3. The Norman Conquest of England and the Norman-French element in the English vocabulary
- •4. The problem of gender in the English language
- •5. The grammatical category of case in English.
- •6. Basic semantic types of the Genitive case in the English language
- •7. The grammatical category of number in the system of the English language
- •8. The grammatical categories of tense and aspect in English
- •9. The grammatical category of voice in English
- •10. The grammatical category of mood in English
- •11. The classification of the simple sentences according to the purpose of utterance in English
- •12. The classification of the simple sentences according to the structure
- •13. The compound sentence and types of coordination
- •14. The complex sentence and types of subordinate clauses
- •15. Фонетика як наука та її галузі. Фонетика і фонологія (Phonetics as a science and its branches. Phonetics and phonology)
- •16. Використання мови в усній вербальній комунікації (Language use in oral verbal communication)
- •17. Вимова як один із шляхів матеріалізації усної форми мови (Pronunciation as a way of materializing of oral form of language)
- •18. Просодія як один із найважливіших явищ в англійській мові (Prosody as one of the most important phenomena in the English language).
- •19. Порівняльна характеристика одиниць мови та мовлення (Units of language as compared with /vs/ speech).
- •20. Головні варіанти вимови англійської мови (Major accents of English)
- •21. Класифікація голосних в англійській мові за артикуляцією (The articulatory classification of the English vowels).
- •22. Класифікація приголосних в англійській мові за артикуляцією (The articulatory classification of the English consonants).
- •23. Асиміляція як універсальна характерна ознака розмовної мови. Типи асиміляції за ступенем (Assimilation as a universal feature of spoken language. Types of assimilation according to the degree).
- •24. Типи асиміляції за позицією у слові (Types of assimilation according to the position in a word)
- •25. Склад як невід’ємна частина слова (The syllable as an integral part of the word).
- •26. Типи складів в англійській мові за розміщенням голосних і приголосних (Types of the syllables in English according to the placement of vowels and consonants)
- •27. Типи складів в англійській мові за положенням у слові (Types of the syllables in English according to the position in a word)
- •28. Природа словесного наголосу в англійській мові (The nature of English word stress)
- •29. Типи словесного наголосу в англійській мові (Types of English word stress)
- •30. Функції словесного наголосу в англійській мові (English word stress functions).
- •31. Onomatopoeia as one of the phonetic expressive means
- •32. The synonymous phenomenon in the English language
- •33. The antonymous phenomenon in the English language
- •34. The traditional classification of homonyms in English
- •35. Contraction as one of the ways of shortening
- •36. Abbreviation as one of the means of word formation in English
- •37. Conversion as one of the means of affixless derivation
- •38. Alliteration and assonance as expressive phonetic stylistic devices
32. The synonymous phenomenon in the English language
Synonyms are words belonging to the same part of speech, differing in sound form, and possessing one or more identical or nearly identical (similar) denotational meanings.
There are two types of synonyms. They are: ideographic and stylistic synonyms.
Ideographic synonyms differ in shades of meaning, e.g. to shake – to tremble – to shiver; fast – rapid – swift – quick, etc.
Stylistic synonyms differ in stylistic characteristics, e.g. father (neutral word) – parent (bookish word) – dad (daddy) (colloquial word) – governor (slang).
In most cases the synonymic group includes both ideographic and stylistic synonyms, e.g. to begin (neutral) – to commence (bookish) – to start (neutral) – to initiate (bookish).
Absolute synonyms are quite alike in their meanings and stylistic colouring. They are interchangeable in all contexts, e.g. fatherland – motherland – homeland.
Each group of synonyms comprises a synonymic dominant – the unit that have the most general meaning of the kind:
to shine :: to flash – to blaze – to gleam , etc.
33. The antonymous phenomenon in the English language
Words that have directly opposite meanings are called antonyms. Antonyms fall into two main groups. They are root and affixal antonyms.
Root antonyms are those ones which are of different roots, e.g. long :: short, up :: down, to start :: to finish, etc.
Affixal antonyms are those ones in which special affixes or their absence express semantic opposition, e.g. hopeful :: hopeless, happy :: unhappy, appear ;; disappear, regular :: irregular, etc.
Polysemantic words usually have antonyms for each of their lexico-semantic variants. E.g.: a dull knife :: a sharp knife, a dull boy :: a bright boy, a dull novel :: a thrilling novel, etc.
34. The traditional classification of homonyms in English
Words identical in form but quite different in their meaning and distribution are called homonyms.
The traditional formal classification of homonyms is as follows: absolute and partial homonyms.
I. Absolute homonyms are identical both in sound and spelling, e.g. a ball (м’яч) :: a ball (бал).
ІІ. Partial homonyms are subdivided into homographs and homophones.
1) Homographs are identical in spelling but different in sound, e.g. a bow /bou/ (лук) :: a bow /bau/ (ніс корабля);
2) Homophones are identical in sound but different in spelling, e.g. fir (ялинка) :: fur (хутро);
Homonyms may be classified by the type of their meaning. In this case we distinguish between lexical homonyms, grammatical homonyms and homoforms.
1) Lexical homonyms belong to the same part of speech, e.g. a club noun (клуб) :: a club noun (кийок);
2) Grammatical homonyms belong to different parts of speech, e.g. a horse noun (кінь) :: hoarse adjective (хрипкий);
3) Homoforms are identical only in some of their paradigm constituents, e.g. seize verb. :: sees (Present Indefinite, 3rd person, singular of the verb to see), etc.
From the viewpoint of their origin, homonyms are divided into etymological and historical.
Etymological homonyms are words of different origin. Their formal coincidence is the result of various factors: phonetical changes in native and borrowed words, changes in spelling, etc.
E.g. Old French bas > in Modern English is base I (підлий)
Latin basis> in Old English was base > in Modern English is base II (основа, підвалина)
Historical homonyms are those which result from disintegration (split) of polysemy. At present there is not any connection between their meanings, e.g.: nail (ніготь) ::nail (цвях) > OE naeg(e)l.