Файловый архив студентов. Файловый архив студентов.
1330 вузов, 5507 предметов.
/ Регистрация
FAQ Обратная связь Вопросы и предложения
Добавил:
Upload Опубликованный материал нарушает ваши авторские права? Сообщите нам.
Вуз:
Казанский Государственный Аграрный Университет
Предмет:
[НЕСОРТИРОВАННОЕ]
Файл:
Anglysky_yazyk_dlya_ekonomistov_Agabekyan.pdf
Скачиваний:
862
Добавлен:
21.05.2015
Размер:
1 Мб
Скачать
☆
►Содержание►

Menger's son Karl Menger was born in 1902 and went on to become a respected mathematician.

Biography of John Maynard Keynes (1883 — 1946)

So influential was John Maynard Keynes that an entire school of modern thought bears his name. Many of his ideas were revolutionary; almost all were controversial. Keynesian economics serves as a sort of yardstick that can define virtually all economists who came after Keynes.

Keynes was born in Cambridge and attended King's College, Cambridge, where he earned his degree in mathematics in 1905. He remained there for another year to study under Alfred Marshall and Arthur Pigou, whose scholarship on the quantity theory of money led to Keynes's Tract on Monetary Reform many years later. After leaving Cambridge, Keynes took a position with the civil service in Britain. While there, he collected the material for his first book in economics, Indian Currency and Finance, in which he described the workings of India's monetary system. He returned to Cambridge in 1908 as a lecturer, and then took a leave of absence to work for the British Treasury. He worked his way up quickly through the bureaucracy and, by 1919, was the Treasury's principal representative at the peace conference at Versailles. He resigned because he thought the Treaty of Versailles was overly burdensome to the Germans. Upon resigning, he returned to Cambridge to resume teaching.

Keynes became a celebrity before becoming one of the most respected economists of the century. What gained him his celebrity status was his eloquent book The Economic Consequences of the Peace.

Keynes wrote it to object to the punitive reparations payments imposed on Germany by the Allied countries after World War I.

In the twenties Keynes was a believer in the quantity theory of money (today called monetarism). His writings on the topic were essentially built upon the principles he had learned from his mentors, Marshall and Pigou. In 1923 he wrote Tract on Monetary Reform, and later he published Treatise on Money, both on monetary policy. His major

207

policy view was that the way to stabilize the economy was to stabilize the price level, and that to do that the government's central bank must lower interest rates when prices tend to rise and raise them when prices tend to fall.

Keynes's ideas took a dramatic change, however, as unemployment in Britain were very high during the interwar period, reaching levels as high as 20 percent. Keynes investigated other causes of Britain's economic problems, and The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money was the result. Keynes's General Theory revolutionized the way economists think about economics. First, it introduced the notion of aggregate demand as the sum of consumption, investment, and government spending. Second, it showed that full employment could be maintained only with the help of government spending. Economists still argue about what Keynes thought caused high unemployment. Some think that Keynes attributed unemployment to wages that take a long time to fall. But Keynes actually wanted wages not to fall, and advocated in the General Theory that wages be kept stable. A general cut in wages, he argued, would decrease income, consumption, and aggregate demand. This would offset any benefits to output that the lower price of labour might have contributed. General Theory advocated deficit spending during economic downturns to maintain full employment. Keynes's conclusion initially met with opposition. At the time, balanced budgets were standard practice with the government. But the idea soon took hold and the United States government put people back to work on public works projects. Of course, once policymakers had taken deficit spending to heart, they could not let it go.

In 1925 Keynes married the Russian ballet dancer Lydia Lopukhova. He was made a lord in 1942. Keynes died on April 21, 1946, survived by his father, John Neville Keynes, also a renowned economist in his day.

Little of Keynes" original work survives in modern economic theory. Instead, his ideas have been endlessly revised, expanded, and critiqued. Keynesian economics today, while having its roots in The General Theory, is chiefly the product of work by subsequent economists including John

208

Hicks, James Tobin, Paul Samuelson, Alan Blinder, Robert Solow, William Nordhaus, Charles Schultze, Robert Heller, and Arthur Okun. The study of econometrics was created, in large part, to empirically explain Keynes's macroeconomic models.

Laureates of the Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel

Year awarded

Name(s) of the laureate(s)

 

 

 

Topic

 

 

 

 

 

 

Ragnar Frisch (1895-1973) Jan

"for having developed and applied

1969

dynamic

models

for

the

analysis of

 

Tinbergen (1903-1994)

economic processes"

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

"for the scientific work through which

 

 

he has developed static and dynamic

1970

Paul A. Samuelson (1915 - ...)

economic

theory

and

actively

 

 

contributed to raising the level of

 

 

analysis in economic science"

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

"for

his

empirically

founded

 

 

interpretation of

economic growth

1971

Simon Kuznets (1901-1985)

which has led to new and deepened

 

 

insight into the economic and social

 

 

structure and process of development"

 

 

 

 

John R. Hicks (1904-1989)

"for their pioneering contributions to

1972

general economic equilibrium theory

Kenneth J. Arrow (1921-...)

 

and welfare theorv"

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

"for the development of the input-

1973

Wassily Leontief (1921-...)

output method and for its application

 

 

to important economic problems"

 

 

 

 

 

"for their pioneering work in the

 

Gunnar Myrdal (1898-1987)

theory

 

of

money

and

economic

 

fluctuations and for their penetrating

1974

Friedrich August von Hayek

analysis

of

the interdependence of

 

(1899-1992)

 

economic,

social

and institutional

 

 

 

 

phenomena"

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1975

Leonid Vitaliyevich Kantoro-

"for their contributions to the theory

vich (1912-1986) Tjailing C.

of optimum allocation of resources"

 

Koopmans (1910-1985)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

209

 

 

"for his achievements in the fields of

 

 

consumption

analysis,

monetary

1976

Milton Friedman (1912-...)

history and theory and for his

 

 

demonstration of the complexity of

 

 

stabilization policy

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1977

Bertil Ohlin (1899-1979) James

"for their pathbreaking contribution to

E. Meade (1907-1995)

the theory of international trade and

 

international capital movements"

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

"for his pioneering research into the

1978

Herbert A. Simon (1916-2001)

decision-making

process

within

 

 

economic organizations"

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Theodore W. Schultz (1902-

"for

their

pioneering research

into

 

economic development research with

1979

1998)

particular

consideration

of

the

 

Sir Arthur Lewis (1915-1991)

 

problems of developing countries"

 

 

 

 

 

"for the creation of econometric

1980

Lawrence R. Klein (1920-...)

models and the application

to

the

analysis of economic fluctuations and

 

 

 

 

economic policies"

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

"for his analysis of financial markets

1981

James Tobin (1918-2000)

and

their

relations

to

expenditure

decisions,

employment,

production

 

 

 

 

and prices"

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

"for his seminal studies of industrial

1982

George J. Stigler (1911-1991)

structures, functioning of markets and

causes and effects of public

 

 

regulation"

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

"for

having

incorporated

 

new

 

 

analytical

methods

into

economic

1983

Gerard Debreu (1921-2004)

theory and for his rigorous

 

 

reformulation of the theory of general

 

 

equilibrium"

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

210

 

 

"for

having

made

fundamental

 

 

contributions to the development of

1984

Richard Stone (1913-1991)

systems of national accounts and

 

 

hence greatly improved the basis for

 

 

empirical economic analysis"

 

 

 

 

1985

Franco Modigliani (1918-2003)

"for his pioneering analyses of saving

and of financial markets"

 

 

 

 

 

 

"for his development of the

1986

James M. Buchanan Jr. (1919

contractual

and

constitutional

bases

—...)

for the theory of economic and

 

 

 

political decision-making"

 

 

 

 

1987

Robert M.Solow (1924-...)

"for his contributions to the theory of

economic growth"

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

"for his pioneering contributions to

1988

Maurice Allais (1911-...)

the theory of markets and efficient

 

 

utilization of resources"

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

"for his clarification of the probability

1989

Trygve Haavelmo (1911-1999)

theory

foundations of

econometrics

and his analyses of simultaneous

 

 

economic structures"

 

 

 

 

 

 

Harry M. Markowitz (1927-...)

"for their pioneering work in the

1990

Merton H. Miller (1923-2000)

theory of financial economics"

 

 

William F. Sharpe (1934-...)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

"for his discovery and clarification of

 

 

the significance of transaction costs

1991

Ronald H. Coase (1910-...)

and

property

rights

for

the

 

 

institutional structure and functioning

 

 

of the economy"

 

 

 

 

 

 

1992

Gary S. Becker (1930-...)

"for having extended the domain of

 

 

microeconomic analysis to a wide

 

 

range of human behaviour and

 

 

interaction,

including

nonmarket

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

211

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

behaviour"

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

"for having renewed research in

 

Robert W. Fogel (1923—...)

economic

history

by

applying

1993

economic

theory

and

quantitative

Douglass C. North (1920-...)

 

methods in order to explain economic

 

 

 

 

and institutional change"

 

 

 

 

 

 

John C. Harsanyi (1920-2000)

"for their pioneering analysis of

1994

John F.Nash Jr. (1928-...)

equilibria in the theory of non-

 

Reinhard Selten (1930-...)

cooperative games

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

"for having developed and applied the

 

 

hypothesis

of

rational

expectations,

1995

Robert E. Lucas Jr. (1934-...)

and

thereby

having

transformed

macroeconomic

 

analysis

and

 

 

deepened

our

understanding of

 

 

economic policy"

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

James A. Mirrlees (1936—...)

"for

their

fundamental

contributions

1996

William Vickrey (1914-1996)

to the economic theory of incentives

 

 

under asymmetric information"

 

 

 

1997

Robert C. Merton (1944-...)

"for a new method to determine the

Myron S. Scholes (1941-...)

value of derivatives"

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1998

Amartya Sen (1933—...)

"for

his

contributions

to

welfare

economics"

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

"for his analysis of monetary and

1999

Robert A. Mundell (1932-...)

fiscal policy under different exchange

rate regimes and his analysis of

 

 

 

 

optimum currency areas"

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

212

 

 

"for his development of theory and

2000

James J. Heckman (1944—...)

methods

for

analyzing

selective

 

 

samples"

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

"for his development of theory and

2000

Daniel L. McFadden (1937-...)

methods

for

analyzing

discrete

 

 

choice"

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

George A. Akerlof (1940-...)

"for

their

analyses

of markets with

2001

Michael Spence (1943-...)

asymmetric information"

 

 

Joseph E. Stiglitz (1943-...)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

"for having integrated insights from

 

 

psychological research into economic

 

 

science, especially concerning human

 

 

judgment and decision-making under

2002

Daniel Kahneman (1934—...)

uncertainty"

 

 

 

Vernon L. Smith (1927-...)

"for

having

established

laboratory

 

 

 

experiments as a tool in empirical

 

 

economic analysis, especially in the

 

 

study

of

alternative

market

 

 

mechanisms"

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

"for methods of analyzing economic

2003

Robert F. Engle III (1942-...)

time series with time-varying

 

 

volatility (ARCH)"

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

"for methods of analyzing economic

2003

Clive W.J. Granger (1934-...)

time series with common trends

 

 

(cointegration)"

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

"for their contributions to dynamic

 

Finn E. Kydland (1943—...)

macroeconomics:

the

time

2004

consistency of economic policy and

Edward C. Prescott (1940-...)

 

 

the driving forces behind business

 

 

cycles"

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

213

Соседние файлы в предмете [НЕСОРТИРОВАННОЕ]
Помощь Обратная связь Вопросы и предложения Пользовательское соглашение Политика конфиденциальности