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Chapter 7
Digital Detection by Time-Locked Sampling in EPR
James S. Hyde1, Theodore G. Camenisch1, Joseph J. Ratke1, Robert A. Strangeway1,2, Wojciech Froncisz1,3
1Department of Biophysics, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, USA 2Milwaukee School of Engineering, Milwaukee, WI, USA
3Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland
Abstract: All frequencies in a magnetic resonance spectrometer should be phase-locked to a single master oscillator. Departure from this principle leads to degraded instrument performance. The use of digital technology is making superheterodyne detection increasingly attractive, relative to homodyne detection, which has been used in most “modern” EPR spectrometers. The signal modulation frequency, the sampling, frequency, and the intermediate frequency (from the signal down-converter) are all locked to the same clock, so the method is called “time-locked.” The sampling of the analog signal to digitize it is done four times in an odd number of cycles, typically 3, 5, or 7, so this is “sub-sampling” relative to the Nyquist criterion. Hence, the name timelocked subsampling (TLSS). An essential feature of TLSS is broadbandedness followed by digital filtering with internal consistency between the two quadrature detection channels. This type of broad-band acquisition followed by digital analysis permits, for example, study of multiple harmonics of the field modulated signal.
1.INTRODUCTION
This article seeks to provide a background for digital detection methods in EPR spectroscopy that will be useful in future spectrometer-design initiatives. Both continuous wave (CW) and pulse EPR are considered. We propose here a system of classification of these methods as illustrated in Fig. 1. In the detection systems of this figure, the microwave EPR signal-of- interest is represented by 
Generally it will be a periodic time series, even in the case of pulse EPR since pulse experiments are usually repeated periodically to increase the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). The harmonic
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content of the signal can be quite high. Each circuit employs a low noise amplifier (LNA), based on our view that an LNA should always be incorporated in high performance spectrometers. In addition, each circuit also shows an anti-aliasing (aa) filter, designated LP for lowpass or BP for bandpass. This filter is an essential element whenever an analog-to-digital (A/D) converter is used.
Figure 1. Classes of digital detection methods for EPR spectroscopy. Notation is defined in the text.