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3. Part of
the com-
The arm of our re-
Цель нашей ис-
глагол to be перево-
4. Attribute
Subsances to resist
Вещества, кото-
переводится глаго-
search is to find
следовательской
дится «заключает-
pound
nominal
predicate
the necessary data.
the flow of current
are called insulators.
Не was the first
come.
работы заключается в том, чтобы
найти необходимые данные.
рые оказывают
сопротивление
току, называются
изоляторами.
Он вошел первым.
ся в том, чтобы»
или совсем не переводится
лом-сказуемым
определительного
придаточного предложения
обычно после слов
«the first, the second,
… , the last» пере-
The problem to be
solved is of great
importance.
Задача, которая
должна быть (будет) решена,
имеет большое
значение.
водится личной
формой глагола «to
be», причем в том
времени, в котором
был глагол «to be»,
а сам глагол «to be»
не переводится
переводится определительным придаточным предложением, причем его
сказуемое имеет
модальное значение
долженствования
или относится к будущему времени
41
Text
at rest – в состоянии покоя
try the experiment |ɪkˈspɛrɪm(ə)nt| –
static |ˈstætɪk| – статический, не
generate |ˈdʒɛnəreɪt| – вырабаты-
condition |kənˈdɪʃ(ə)n| – режим
unit – единица измерения
in motion |ˈməʊʃ(ə)n| – в движении
continuous current |kənˈtɪnjʊəs| – не-
to flow |fləʊ| – струиться, течь
dissimilar metals |dɪˈsɪmɪlə| – разно-
as well as – так же как, а также
steady |ˈstɛdi| – неизменный, посто-
behaviour |bɪˈheɪvjə| – режим (ра-
to increase |ɪnˈkriːs| – увеличивать,
previously |ˈpriːvɪəsli| – ранее
thus |ðʌs| – так, таким образом
rubbing |ˈrʌbɪŋ| – трение, натира-
voltaic |vɒlˈteɪɪk| – гальванический
substance |ˈsʌbst(ə)ns| – вещество,
pile – батарея
to discharge |dɪsˈtʃɑːdʒ| – разря-
layer |ˈleɪə| – слой
in no time – быстро
copper – медь
unlike charges |ˈtʃɑːdʒɪz| – разно-
to moisten |ˈmɔɪs(ə)n| – увлажнять,
electric current |ˈkʌr(ə)nt| – электри-
wire |ˈwaɪə| – электрический провод
From the History of Electricity
Vocabulary
проводить эксперимент
динамический
боты)
вать
прерывный ток
родные металлы
янный
усиливать
ние
нечто реальное
жать(ся)
именные заряды
ческий ток
смачивать
42
There are two types of electricit y, namely, electrici ty at rest or in a static
condition and electri cit y in motion, that is , th e elect ri c cur ren t. Bot h of them ar e
made up of electric charges, static charges being at rest, while el ectric current
flows and does work. Thus they differ in their ability to serve mankind as well
as in their behaviour.
Let us first turn our attention to static electricity. For a long time it was the
only electri cal ph enomenon to b e observ ed b y man. As previously mentioned at
least 2,500 years ago, or so, the Greeks knew how to get electricity by rubbing
substances. However, for practical purposes static electricity was not much
more useful than ligh tning . Indeed , the elect rici ty to b e obtain ed by ru bbing objects cannot be used to light lamps, to boil water, to run electric trains, and so
on. It is usually very high in voltage, difficult to control; besides it discharges
in no time.
As early as 1753, Franklin made an important contribution to the science
of electrici ty. He was th e first to pr ove that unlike charges are pr oduced due t o
rubbing dissimilar objects. To sh ow that the ch arges are unl ike and oppos ite, he
decided to call the charge on the rubber – negative and that on the glass – posi-
tive.
In this connection one might remember our Russian Academician Petroff.
He was the fi rst to carry o n experiment s and obs ervations on the electrif ication
of metals by rubbing them one against another. As a result he was the first scientist in the world who solved that problem.
So far, almost nothing was said about the electric current. Who does not
know that the first man to produ ce it was Vol ta. His discovery d evelo ped out of
Galvani’s experiments with the frog. Various writers retell that story in quite
different ways . In fact, G alvani obs erved that the legs o f a dead frog ju mped as
a result of an electric char ge. He tried his experiment several times an d every
time he obtained the same result. He thought that electricity was generated
within the leg itself.
This thought was not so very strange because he could not help remember-
ing the electric fi sh which possess ed the property of giving more or less st rong
shocks.
43
As previously mentioned, the discovery of the electric current was made
possible owing to Volta after whom the UNIT of electr ic pr ess ure, th e vo lt, was
named.
Volta was born at Como, in Italy, February 18, 1745. For some years he
was a teacher of physics in his home town. Later on he became professor of
natural sci ences at the Un iversity of Pavia. After h is famous di scovery he trav-
elled in many countries, among them France, Germany and England. He was
also invited to Paris to lecture on the newly discovered chemical source of con-
tinuous curr ent . In 1819 he returned to Como where he spent the res t of his life.
Volta died at the age of 82.
Volta took great interest in Gal vani’s research es . H e b eg an to carry o n s i milar experiments and soon found out that the electric source was not within the
frog’s leg it self, but was th e result of the co ntact of both dissimilar metals used
during his observations. However, to carry on experiments of such a kind was
not an easy thing to do. He spent the next few years trying to invent a source of
a steady, continuous current. To increase the effect obtained with one pair of
metals, Volt a increased th e number of thes e pairs. Thus the voltaic pile consisted of a layer of copper an d a layer o f zink pl aced on e above an oth er with a layer of flann el moistened in salt water between them. In th is way the voltaic pile
looked like a t hick sandwich cont aining copper, zinc, f lannel moistened in salt
water, copper , zinc, fl annel , and so on. A wire was con nect ed to th e fi rst dis c of
copper and to the last disc of zinc.
The year 1800 is a good date to be remembered: for the first time in the
world’s history a steady, continuous current was generated.
1. Translate the following sentences paying attention to the Infinitive.
1. We shall translate this article. 2. Do you know this man? 3. They can
translate thi s text withou t a dictionary. 4. To transl ate this article i s not an easy
thing to do. 5. We want to translate this article. 6. I remember to have seen this
man last year. 7. To study much is to learn much. 8. To master a language one
must work much. 9. The professor to deliver a lecture at our Institute lives in
our street. 10. The experiment to be carried on is described in this article.
44
11. Can this work have been done in such a short time? 12. He must be reading
a newspaper in the reading-room. 13. He was glad to have been traveling in
Europe.
2. Translate the following sentences paying special attention to the
words in bold type.
1. The students carried out an experiment looking at the thermometer from
time to time. 2. The cinema was inv ented befo re my time. 3. It is high time to
begin work. 4. Four times three is twelve. 5. “Am I late? ” “No, you are ju st in
time”. 6. “What is the time?” “ It’s dinner time”. 7. The students went to the
club and had a good time ther e. 8. It took a long time befo re people lear nt to
split the atoms. 9. I shall be back in no time. 10. For a long time people did
not know that lightning and atmospheric electricity are one and the same thing.
11. Lomonosov lectured at the University and at the same time worked in dif-
ferent fields of science. 12. I work in the laboratory two times a week .
3. Translat e the followi ng sentences pa ying special att ention to the Infinitive.
1. This is the dev ice to be used in our experimen t. 2. The ther mometer is a
device to measure t he temperatur e. 3. Where are t he articles to be translated by
the students? 4. The letter to b e answered was given to me. 5. The motor is a
device to change mechanical energy into electric en ergy. 6 . Russi a was the f irst
to use atomic ener gy for peaceful purpo ses. 7. Petroff was the fir st scientist to
study the electrification of metals by rubbing them. 8. I was the last to answer
the teacher’s questions.
4. Fill in the blanks with the words one or for.
1. Moscow is … of the largest cities in the world. 2. … must remember
that it is necessary to study English at least an hour a day. 3. As … rubber it
was brought to Europe as early as the 15th century. 4. … understands the importance of el ectricity when … sees trams, trolley-buses and trains driv en by it.
45
5. The energy of the atom is used … peaceful purposes in our country. 6. …
must know the chemical properties of the atom. 7. We produce rubber … it is
quite necessary … the development of our industry. 8. In 1819 Volta returned
to Como … he wanted to spend the rest of his life there. 9. There is a more important problem than that … . 10. I haven’t got a dictionary, I must have … .
5. Write out f rom the t ext all the s entences wh ere th e I nfin itiv e is used ,
and define its function.
6. Make up sentences accor ding to the model using the verbs given
below.
Model: We could not help speaking about the
achievements of Russian physicists.
to answer, to repeat, to mention, to observe, to change, to think, to remember.
7. Give antonyms for the following words.
North Pole, dark, on the one hand, small, arrangement, larger, magnetized,
unfamiliar, like, positive, similar, to rest, in motion.
8. Answer the following questions.
1. What types of electricity do you know? 2. What is the difference between electri city at rest an d electricity i n motion? 3. Wh at kind of exper iments
did Galvani car ry on? 4. What did F rankl in prov e? 5. What ar e the t wo kinds of
electrical charges? 6. Who was the first to produce a steady, continuous current? 7. What was Volta? 8. What can you say about the behaviour of static
charges? 9 . What did Vol ta take in terest in? 10. What did Vo lta’s dis covery result in? 11. What did the Volta device consist of? 12. Where did he spend the
rest of his life?
9. Retell Volta’s biography.
46
UNIT 9. INFINITIVE CONSTRUCTIONS
Noun,
Главное
Придаточное
Predicate
Главное
Что,
Придаточное
Что, чтобы, как
Complex Object
Suject
+
Predicate
+
Objective
+ Infinitive
Pronoun
предложение
предложение
I know Rihman to be a great scientist. – Я знаю, что Рихман – великий
ученый.
I want you to com e t omorrow. – Я хочу, чтобы ты пришел завтра.
Complex Subject
Subject +
+ Infinitive
(usually in Passive)
предложение
+
чтобы,
как
+
предложение
These scientists are considered to have greatly contributed to the sci-
ence of electricity. – Считается, что эти ученые внесли большой вклад
в науку об электричестве.
He is known to wo rk here. – Известно, что он работает здесь.
47
to produce |prəˈdjuːs| – создавать,
генерировать
in fact |fækt| – на самом деле, по сути
subject |ˈsʌbdʒɪkt| – тема, тема-
DC=direct current |dɪˈrɛkt| – постоян-
newly discovered |dɪˈskʌvəd| –
for – так как; ввиду того, что
direction |dɪˈrɛkʃ(ə)n| – направление
to push |pʊʃ| – продвигать, протал-
statement |ˈsteɪtm(ə)nt| – заявление,
terminal|ˈtəːmɪn(ə)l| – клемма;
certainly |ˈsəːt(ə)nli| – несомненно
AC = alternating current |ˈɔːltɜːneɪtɪŋ| –
to flow along – течь по
i.e.=id est (that is) – то есть
wire |ˈwaɪə| – эл. провод
to stand for – обозначать, значить
to consider |kənˈsɪdə| – считать
under consideration |kənsɪdəˈreɪʃ(ə)n| –
minute particle|ˈpɑːtɪk(ə)l| – мель-
vice versa – наоборот
to travel – двигаться, переме-
lighting |ˈlʌɪtɪŋ| – освещение
minute particle|ˈpɑːtɪk(ə)l| – мель-
to assume |əˈsjuːm| – допускать,
to carry – переносить, передавать
to go through – проходить сквозь, ис-
in addition |əˈdɪʃ(ə)n| – кроме того
ease |iːz| – легкость, простота
solid – твердое тело
voltage |ˈvəʊltɪdʒ| – эл. напряжение
liquid |ˈlɪkwɪd| – жидкость
hence – поэтому, следовательно
as well – а также
to operate – управлять, эксплуатиро-
Text
Electric Current
Vocabulary
тика
вновь обнаружившийся
утверждение
ный ток
кивать
вход/выход
переменный ток
рассматриваемый, обсуждаемый
чайшие частицы
щаться
чайшие частицы
предполагать
пытывать, подвергаться
вать
48
gas |ɡæs| – газ
to find a wi de a p plication |aplɪˈkeɪʃ(ə)n| –
находить широкое применение
to meet the re qui rements
in spite of |spʌɪt| – несмотря на
to conduct current |kənˈdʌkt| – про-
to require |rɪˈkwʌɪə| – требовать
to find (found) |faɪnd| – считать,
subject |ˈsʌbdʒɪkt| – тема, тематика
wrong way – направление проти-
certain|ˈsəːt(ə)n| – точный, уверенный
|rɪˈkwaɪəmənts| – отвечать требо-
ваниям
водить ток
полагать
воположное, неправильное
Ever since Vo lta first produced a source o f steady co ntinuou s curren t, men
of science hav e b een for ming th eori es on th is subject. For so me ti me th ey cou ld
see no real difference between the newly-discovered phenomenon and the former understanding of static charge. Then the famous French scientist, Ampere
(after who m the unit of cur rent was named) d etermined the d ifference between
the current and the stat ic charges. In additio n to it, Ampere gave the cu rrent di-
rection: he supposed it to flow from the positive pole of the source round the
circuit and back again to the negative pole. We know him to be right in his first
statement but he was certainly wrong in the second, as to t he direction of cur-
rent. The flow of current is now known to be in a direction opposite to what he
thought. (We shall return to that problem later on.)
Let us turn our attention, now, to the electric current itself. The current
which flows along wires consists of moving electrons. In other words, the flow
of moving electr ons is one form of th e electric current . What can we say abou t
the electron? We consider the electron t o be a minute particle having an elect r i c
charge. We also know that ch arg e to be neg ative. As th ese minu te char ges trav-
el along a wire, that wire is said to carry an electric current.
In addition to traveling through solids, however, the electric current can
flow through liquids, as well and even through gases. In both cases it produ ces
some most important effects to meet industrial requirements. Some liquids,
49
such as melted metals for example, conduct current without any change to
themselves. Others, called electrolytes, are found to change greatly when the
current passes through them.
The reader is certain to remember that a negatively charged electron
moves to the positive end of the wire. It had been supposed to move in the
wrong way, from the positive end of the circuit to the negative, long before the
electrons wer e discovered. In fact, when a wire is said to be carrying a cu rrent
from left to right, the e lectrons in it are really flowing from right to left.
When the electrons flow in one direction only, the current is said to be d.c.,
that is, direct current. Th e simplest source of p ower for di rect current s is a battery, for a battery pushes the electrons in the same direction all the time (i.e.,
from the negati vely charged terminal to the positively charged terminal).
The letters a.c. stand for alternating current. The curr ent under considera-
tion is known to flow first in one direction and then in the opposite one. The
a.c. used fo r power and lighting purposes is assumed to go through 50 cycles in
one second.
One of the great advantages of a.c. is the ease with which power at low
voltage can be changed into an almost similar amount of power at high voltage
and vice v ersa. Hence, on the one hand alternating voltage is increased when it
is necessary f or long-distance transmission and, on the other hand, one can decrease it to meet i nd ustrial requir ement s as w ell as to operate vari ou s d evices at
home. In fact, at least 90 per cen t o f elect ri c ener gy t o be gen erat ed at pr esen t is
a.c. We know i t to find a wide application for lighting, heating, industrial and
other purposes.
The student may b e probably asking himself : “Why is d.c. ever used? ” In
spite of the fact that almost all electri cal power is usually gen erated and transmitted in th e form of a.c., th ere are numerous cases when d.c. is required. For
this reason, it is quite possible to generate a.c. then transform it into d.c.
We cannot help mentioning here that Yablochkov, our Russian scientist
and inventor, was the first to apply a.c. in practice.
50