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8. In view of the various sources of supply no attempt at standardizing
power-station equipment was possible.
9. In the case o f gas es, we f in d t hat th e high er t he t emperat ur e, th e les s g as
will dissolve.
10. Owing to two opposing eff ects, the pressur e in the gas tu be can be either high or low.
11. In effect, what is said with regard to one device will apply to the other,
as well.
12. According to the data obtained, the test was successful in spite of unfavorable conditions.
13. Galvanized iron is often used instead of aluminium because of its
cheapness.
14. Great progress has been made in science due to the discovery of the
law of gravity.
15. In order to clas sify the el ements , they ar e arrang ed in a t able i n the order of increasing atomic weights and each one is assigned a number by means
of which we find it s position in this table.
16. Silver stands out among the tested materials thanks to its low resistance and stability.
17. Every ato m is composed of at least an electron in addition to a central
nucleus.
18. The apparatus, in question, broke on account of its having been made
of an unsuitable material.
Modality
1. It is an increase in temperature that increases the speed of the molecules.
2. The chief r equi rement s for silent and vibrationless running of small motors may be found in any standard textbook on mechanical design.
3. If that be true the curves should also be true.
4. Such conditions can and do occur due to shortage of generating plants
in this area.
91
5. It was with this object in view that this device was in our laboratory.
6. If this system is to serve as a voltmeter, a resistor has to be added in
series.
7. In 1870 Mendeleyev arranged the elements in the form of a table and it
is to Mendeleyev that we owe the present tabular form of the periodic law.
8. The brevi t y of t h e tab l e do ubtless requires t hat something fur t h er be s aid
in explanation.
9. It is obvious that provided the magnetic field is produced by a coil of
several turns, its intensity is much greater than if only one turn were used.
10. Naturally, this circuit can be modified if necessary.
11. Evidently, the frequency could be varied to meet different conditions.
12. Even now, it is impossible to say whether future improvements may
not depend on the r esults of researches that seem unimportant today.
13. No matter in what position the cell may be put, it will serve its pur-
pose.
14. It is clear t hat the decision had to be made as t o whether the uranium
should be in the form of long rods.
15. One must keep in mind a l l the above figures.
16. Unless th ey apply new devices , it will be necessary to proceed as fol-
lows.
17. It was th e diameter of the wire that we did change t o obtain th e above
results.
18. It is desi rable that there be o nly one tuning co ntrol for pictur e and for
sound.
19. There will be no trans fer of electri city bet ween th e two ch arged bodi es
provided they are joined by a glass rod.
20. Had we carr ied our scheme further at that time (that is 3 weeks ago),
the instrume nt i ndication would have bee n qui t e different.
21. Were that liquid heated, it would greatly expand.
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ABSTRACT STRUCTURE
Аннотация – это краткая справка о тексте, патенте, книге, справочни-
ке с точки зрения содержания. При аннотировании печатный материал излагается в предельно сжатой форме. Это процесс свертывания (сжатия)
информации с очень большим уменьшением по отношению к оригиналу.
В отличие от реферата, который отвечает на вопросы: «Что сказано»,
«Что излагается в первоисточнике?», аннотация отвечает на вопрос:
«О чем говорится в первоисточнике?»
Описательная аннотация в сжатой и конкретной форме раскрывает
сущность содержания и основные выводы аннотируемой публикации. Она
состоит обычно из трех частей:
1. Справка к аннотации, где указываются следующие данные: автор,
название работы на английском языке, перевод названия; количество
страниц, таблиц, рисунков, ссылок на использованную литературу; на каком языке написана работа. Для журнала: его название на английском
языке, номер и год издания; для патентов – номер патента и запатентовавшая страна; для каталогов – фирма, выпустившая данный каталог; для
книг, монографий, учебников – название издательства. Эта часть является
необязательной при аннотировании учебных текстов.
2. Основная часть должна отражать перечень наиболее характерных
положений по содержанию работы.
3. Заключительная часть. В этой части должен быть общий вывод автора работы или указание на один вопрос, которому в работе уделено особое внимание, а также рекомендации, для кого данная работа может представлять особый интерес.
Рекомендательная аннотация содержит оценку публикации, цель ко-
торой состоит в том, чтобы помочь читателю в подборе нужной ему литературы.
Структура аннотации. Умение написания аннотации во многом
определяется развитием умения обобщения. В аннотации необходимо
определить основные идеи/разделы работы, соединить их вместе и представить в достаточно краткой форме. Аннотация, как функциональный
тип текста, имеет свою структуру. Представляя содержание целой работы,
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аннотация должна включать в себя ее основные разделы: обоснование актуальности, формулировку проблемы, перечисление путей решения проблемы, результаты исследования и выводы. На каждый из перечисленных
пунктов может отводиться по одному предложению. Поэтому четкость
изложения мысли является ключевым требованием при написании аннотации.
Объем аннотации. Аннотация может быть развернутой или краткой.
Развернутая аннотация, объем которой составляет приблизительно
75 слов, содержит сведения о публикации в более или менее подробном
виде. Краткая аннотация состоит из нескольких фраз или слов.
Язык аннотации. К аннотациям как на русском, так и на английском
языке предъявляются следующие требования:
‒ лаконичность языка, т. е. использование простых предложений
(глаголы употребляются всегда в настоящем времени в действительном
или страдательном залоге. Модальные глаголы, как правило, отсутствуют);
‒ строгая логическая структура аннотации;
‒ обязательное введение в текст аннотации безличных конструкций
и отдельных слов, например: «Сообщается…», «Подробно описывается…», «Кратко рассматривается…», «Излагаются…», «Комментируются…» и др., с помощью которых происходит введение и описание текста
оригинала;
‒ недопущение повторений в заглавии и тексте аннотации;
‒ точность в передаче заглавия оригинала, отдельных формулировок
и определений;
‒ использование общепринятых сокращений слов (напр., и т. д.,
и т. п., и др.);
‒ единство терминов и обозначений;
‒ текст аннотации должен быть максимально кратким, от 500 до
1000 печатных знаков.
Основные штампы (key-patterns) аннотаций на английском и русском
языках представлены далее.
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Основные штампы (key-patterns) аннотаций
на английском и русском языках:
1. The title of the article is … Название (заглавие) текста …
2. As the title implies the article … Согласно названию, в статье describes ... описывается …
3. The article (paper, book, etc.) deals with… Статья касается …
4. The articl e p rovides the r ead er w i t h so me …Статья даёт читателю data
on/ material, information on … информацию о …
5. It is especially noted that…. Особенно отмечается ….
6. A mention should be made that…. Упоминается …..
7. It is spoken in detail … Подробно говорится о ….
8. …. are noted. … упоминаются.
9. It is reported … Сообщается …
10. The text gives valuable information on . Текст даёт ценную инфор-
мацию о...
11. Much attention is g iven to …. Большое внимание уделяется...
12. It gives a detailed analysis of … Она (статья) даёт подробный ана-
лиз …
13. It draws our attention to … Она привлекает наше внимание
14. It should be stressed that… Следует подчеркнуть ….
15. … are discussed. ….обсуждаются.
16. The article is of great help to … Эта статья окажет большую по-
мощь …
17. The article is of interest to …. Эта статья представляет интерес
для …
18. First/firstly … Во-первых ….
19. Moreover, in addition/ next…. Кроме того ….
20. In conclusion … В итоге, в результате …
21. As a result …. В результате …
22. Finally/on the whole … В заключение ….
23. This article is intended for… Эта статья предназначена для …
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ADDITIONAL TEXTS
Wind power
Since the in quisitive minds of travelers realized th at the earth is larg e and
round, the friendship of man and wind began. Having invented the sail, these
fearless and curious ex plorer s discover ed all t he lands and oceans i n just a h undred years. H aving invented the mill, the qu ality of bread in creased 173 ti mes.
Balloons and ot her wonders of thought and even more…
In fact, wind energy is a part of solar energy. What is wind and how is it
formed? It 's all about the unequal warming of the earth's surface by the sun. As
a result, there is an uneven distribution of air pressure. It turns out that the effect in which the air with less pressure b egins to catch u p with air masses with
less pressure. This is wind.
All wind power plants are divided into types of structur es. There are horizontal and vertical. Also wind turbines are classified by size, power, blade
number and component materials of elements.
‒ In con trast to the horizontal rotation axis, vertical o nes work almost si-
lently, but their efficiency is low;
‒ Two, three and multi-blade design are distinguished;
‒ The blad es are mad e of har d materi al and there are s ailin g ones, bu t they
are subject to rapid wearing.
Installations with a horizontal axis are a propeller system with several
blades. Such systems have the highest efficiency and are more studied.
Wind farms are usually used in private houses, villas and places where
there is no electricity at all. Un like solar panels they are not approp riate in the
city of "apartments". Also, wind turbines are in demand among farmers and
owners of small industries.
When exposed t o wind th e blades beg in to rotat e due to th e kinetic en ergy.
This action drives an internal shaft, it is connected to the reducer, which increases the speed of the shaft. The shaft is connected to the generator, which
principle is well known . The gen erator roto r during the rotati on produ ces a current. Since the current produced is constant, and we need a variable one
(220 volts and 50 Hz), the inverters (converters) known to us from solar stations
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are used. Fo r en ergy s to rag e bat ter ies are u sed . Mo der n pl ant s n eed wind po wer
of 4-5 m/s. for high-quality work .
Main compone nt s of a wind turbine:
‒ A shaft with blades and a rotor,
‒ Reducer (in simple language it is a gear box for regulating the rotation
velocity),
‒ Protective housing ( pr otection from wearing),
‒ "Tail" of the installation (important thing for governing the directing the
wind),
‒ Generator (engine) and battery charge controller,
‒ Batteries,
‒ Inverter (12V-220V),
‒ Mast (at a certain height the wind is much more stable).
When placing your station, it is important t o observe the following rules:
‒ Buildings, trees and other things should not be near your windmill (or
windmills);
‒ If there are obstacles, the mast should be 2-3 meters higher;
‒ Residential houses must also be maximally protected from an installa-
tion, as it can make a loud sound (sometimes infrasound).
Solar energy
The sun is the most powerful source of energy in our planet. All our daily
activities include using energy. It is necessary for moving transport and cooking, for working and leisure, for premises heating and cooling.
In just three days, the Sun sends to the Earth as much energy as all explored reserv es of fossil f uel contain and for 1 s – 170 billion j. All the energy
emitted by the Sun is 1600 times more than the energy given by all the other
sources co mbined. Solar en ergy falling on th e surface of one lak e is equivalent
to the power of a l arge power plant.
The energy of t he sun can be used for many tasks. One of them is th e conversion of solar energy into electrical energy. Solar panels are employed to
convert sunlight into electricity. For the first time solar panels were used
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in Space explor ation in 1957. Th ey were in stalled on the satel lite and generat ed
electrical en ergy for its operation . The main element for producing batteries is
silicon.
Converting s o lar ener g y in to electr ical en erg y h as a lo t o f ad van tag es. F irs t
of all, it is its 100% reliability – the Sun will not be with us for sever al million
years according to scientists' forecasts. It is also a clean and therefore safe
source of energy.
Scientists say that the amount of solar energy that comes from the Sun to
the Earth in jus t one day i s enough to prov ide full y the whole world with power
for a year.
In our time, the using solar electricity is already widespread. In remote
places, where t o pull th e cable fro m power plant s is very ex pensive, s olar energy is used. These are remote far ms, freely standing inhabited Islands, sea and
space stations. At the moment, about 7 million houses around the world are
equipped with s ol ar panels.
Moreover in countries where el ectricity is ex pensive and there ar e enough
sunny days p er year, owners of private hous es an d offices ins t al l solar panels on
the building roofs and use s o l ar electricity. The sun replaces 4 0-60% of all cos ts
for other energy carriers. Sometimes sol ar electricity is completely enough for
the needs of th e house and even produced more th an necessary. Th en the owners sell it to s ervice compani es, replen ishing thei r family bud get and payi ng for
the solar p anels installati on. In Germany, the g overnment buys solar electricity
produced during the day from individuals and sells it back at a lower price in
the evening.
The second version for harnessing sunlight is using it for its direct purpose
(for heating wat er and rooms, for dr ying various materi als). For these pu rposes
heat collector s are employed. In summer i n Central Europ e, the perfor mance of
heat collectors with 1 sq. m. can reach 50-60 liters of water per d ay, heat ed to a
temperature of 60-70 degrees. In Israel 80% of water is heated by solar energy.
The simplest d evice of th is kin d is a flat co llecto r. In pri ncipl e, it is a b lack
plate, well insulated from below. It is covered with glass or plastic, which
transmits light, but does not transmit infrared thermal radiation. In the space
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between the plate and the glass is most often placed black tubes through which
water, oil, mercu ry, air , sulfur dioxide flow. So lar radiat ion p enetr ating t hroug h
the glass or plastic into the collector is absorbed by the black tubes and plate
and heats a wor kin g sub st ance i n tub es. Ther mal r adi ati on can not get out of the
collector, s o the temper ature in it is much higher ( 200-500°C) t han the ambient
air. The so-cal led greenho use effect appear s. But th e horizontal co llector is l ess
effective far away from tropics. Th erefore, such coll ectors are usually inst alled
at a certain optimum angle to the South
A more complex an d expensive collector is a concave mirror, which concentrates the incident radiation in a small volume near a certain geometric
point-focus. The reflecti ng surface of a mirror is made of metallized p lastic or
made up of many smal l flat mirrors attached to a large parabolic base. Thanks
to special mech anisms collectors of this type are constan tly turned to the Sun.
This allows you to collect as much solar rad iation as p ossible. The te mperature
in the working space of a mirror collectors reaches 3000 °C and above.
The main countries-consumers of solar energy are Sweden, Denmark,
Germany, Austria, Israel. The total area of thermal power plants is more than
8 million square meters.
At this time, the predominant use of heat collectors is due to the affordability. Science develops and in the nearest future it is worth waiting for new
achievements in this direction. They will reduce the cost of solar electricity
production an d provide people with chea p and safe energy.
Hydropower
For many centuries, the energ y contained in flowing water serves people.
Its reserv es on th e Earth are eno rmous . Ther e are wav es, tides , ther e are po werful ocean currents. Mighty rivers carry huge masses of water to the seas and
oceans. It is clear that the mankind in search of energy could not pass by so
huge its ener gy sources in search ing energy. First of all, people learned to use
the energy of rivers.
Water was the first source of energy, and probably the first machine in
which man used the energy of water was a primitive water turbine. Over
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2000 years ago in the middle East a water wheel in the form of a shaft with
blades was already used (Fig. 3). The flow of water, taken away from the
stream or river, presses on the blades, passing them kinetic energy. The blades
come into mot ion, and since they ar e rigidly fas tened to the shaft , the shaft rotates. A mill st one is attached to it and rotates with a shaft in r elation to a fixed
lower millstone. The first “mechanized” mills for grain worked i n such a way.
But they were built only in mountainous areas, where there are rivers and
streams with a large drop and high pressure. Water wheel s with a horizontally
placed blades are ineffective in slow-flowing streams.
Devices in wh ich water energ y is used to p erform the work are called water (or hyd rauli c.) eng ines. T he simp les t and most an cient o f them ar e th e water
wheels descri bed above. There are wh eels with upper, mi ddle and lower water
supply.
In a modern hydroelectric power plant, the mass of water at high speed
rushes to the of turbine blades. Water flows from the dam-through a pro tective
grid and an adjustable gate-through a steel pipeline to the turbine where the
generator i s installed. Th e mechanical ener g y of the water i s t r ansferred thr ou gh
the turbine generators and they are converted into electrical energy. After the
work is done, the water flows into the river through a gradually expanding tunnel, losing its velocity.
Hydroelectric power plants are classified by capacity into small (with installed electric power up to 0.2 MW), small (up to 2 MW), medium (up to
20 MW) and large (ov er 20 MW). The second criterion by which h ydroelectric
power stations are divided is pressure. There are low-pressure HPPs (up to
10 m), medium head (up to 100 m) and high-pressure (over 100 m). In rare cases, high-pressure hydroelectr ic dams reach a height of 240 m. such dams concentrate water en ergy in front of th e t u rbi n es, accumulatin g water and rais in g it s
level.
The turbine i s a v er y p ro fi table i ns tal lati on , becau se w ater e asi ly an d s imply changes th e translation al motion to the rotational one. The same principle is
often used i n machin es that do not look li ke a water wheel (if th e blades are affected by steam, we are speak about a steam turbine).
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