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Файл:Английский язык для аспирантов кандидатский экзамен. Учебное пособие
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TEXTS FOR TRANSLATION
Text 1
Reinforced concrete is the principal material used for the military
engineering and containment of nuclear power plants. Its mechanical responses under the effects of dynamic loads are complicated. If the load
acts slowly on a large plane, it can be analyzed using the structural mechanics theory. If the load acts rapidly on the concrete structure, due to
the inertia and a short duration effect, the response forms a local region
of high pressure and high temperature. The response is centered on the
load point and an outgoing shock wave is formed inside the concrete.
The compressive wave reflection from the rear faces of the target
produces a tensile wave which interacts with compressive waves resulting in spalling. Concrete behavior is also different from that under the
effect of a quasi-static load. This problem is complicated as the behavior
of the material is difficult to control and the mechanical behaviors vary
under different load conditions.
The methods for studying this problem include analytical methods: under appropriate assumed conditions, solving the problem using
a theoretical model after idealizing the shock wave propagation or impact load, however this method is only applicable to simple problems;
experiments: conducting small-scale or prototype testing experiments
by selecting the proper effect parameters for the blast pressure wave and
analyzing the results using the statistical regression method to obtain the
empirical formula or figures for the structural dynamic response; numerical analysis: using a computer and the fundamental laws of mechanics
(the laws of mass, energy, and momentum), to properly introduce a dynamic response in the material and the failure criterion using numerical
methods, such as the finite element method or finite difference method.
Text 2
Alkali-activated concrete has attracted significant attention because it is considered an environmentally friendly and low-carbon
substitute for conventional ordinary Portland cement (OPC) concrete.
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When comparing OPC with a carbon footprint of 536 kg CO2/m3 to
alkali-activated materials with a carbon footprint of −406 kg CO2/m3,
it is evident that the latter significantly contributes to carbon neutrality.
Alkali-activated materials can offer comparable mechanical properties to OPC concrete. Specifically, the alkali-activated slag material
can achieve compressive strength that is twice as high as OPC under the
same test conditions. The chemical and fire resistance of alkali-activated
concrete makes them attractive for engineering applications. However,
the shrinkage property of the alkali-activated cement, especially with the
utilization of ground granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBS) as a precursor, is a crucial engineering characteristic that affects the development
of cracking when subjected to restrained conditions. The alkali-activated
slag exhibits shrinkage properties two times or even higher than the
OPC. The internal curing effect and the pozzolanic reaction of lightweight aggregates (LWA) in the interfacial transition zone (ITZ) contribute positively to the connection between the aggregate and binder,
improving the shrinkage property of concrete.
The employment of lightweight in alkali-activated cement concrete enhanced the insulation and soundproofing abilities, superior
fire resistance, heightened environmental friendliness, and decreased
structural vulnerability to earthquake hazards. The incorporation of
expanded iron ore tailings (EIOT) LWA into the alkali-activated slag
is a promising method for producing lightweight green concrete.
Text 3
Additive manufacturing is a technique for fabricating three-dimensional structures directly from a digital model. When the technology is fully developed and adopted, the aim is to optimize the use
of resources, reduce construction cost and execution time, and increase the level of safety and design freedom. Integrating 3D printing
with the BIM (building information modeling) method can optimize
structural design, use of material, and installation of several systems
in a building.
Most 3D printing mortars are made with cement as the main
binder. Cement curing is fast, and mortars have high compression
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strength. On the other hand, limes have a lower ecological impact because they are produced at a lower temperature, and energy for milling
is lower in comparison to clinker, fissures can self-heal, and the mortars
absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere while carbonating.
The main disadvantages of using 3D lime-based mortars can be
the lower compression strength and the long time to achieve it. This
can make it difficult to transport printed elements from a production
facility to the building site. There are several types of building limes:
air limes and limes with hydraulic properties. The latter can be natural hydraulic limes (NHLs), hydraulic limes (HLs), or formulated limes (FL). The NHL results from the direct firing of limestone which
is available in nature together with clay inclusions, while the HL and
FL may have additional materials added to the production and formulation, respectively.
To design a 3D printable mortar, it is fundamental to use the
right admixtures and optimize the contents. Admixtures allow to reduce water content while maintaining a good flowability, regulate the
homogeneity and consistency of a mortar, and make them cure fast
enough to move printed elements a few hours after printing.
Text 4
The increasing depletion of natural resources and the growing
challenge of solid waste management are pressing global concerns.
As a result, sustainable construction practices have become essential,
not only to improve building efficiency but also to promote environmental balance.
One of the key benefits of stabilized soil bricks is their low
thermal conductivity, which enhances a building’s energy efficiency.
These bricks also contribute to better acoustic and thermal insulation,
making them a practical choice for sustainable housing. When it
comes to engineering performance, abrasion resistance in materials
like Sawdust Ash (SDA) and Banana Leaf Ash (BLA) depends on
their composition and processing methods, influencing their effectiveness in construction. Both SDA and BLA contain fine particles
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that enhance pozzolanic activity, leading to improved strength and
durability in concrete. Additionally, their porous nature allows for
better bonding within the cement matrix without compromising the
overall structural integrity.
Research on incorporating SDA and BLA in concrete mixtures
has shown remarkable improvements in compressive strength, durability, and chemical resistance, positioning them as a sustainable alternative to conventional cement-based materials. By integrating
these eco-friendly substitutes, construction projects can reduce environmental impact while maintaining the necessary load-bearing capacity.
With the high demand for cement bricks in the construction in-
dustry and Uganda’s increasing industrial waste, it is crucial to de-
velop efficient waste management strategies. This research explores
the potential of sustainable sandcrete bricks by partially replacing cement with locally sourced sawdust ash and banana leaf.
Text 5
It has become imperative to explore sustainable alternatives for
managing gypsum waste and develop innovative strategies to minimize its environmental footprint. One promising solution to this challenge is the use of recycled gypsum. This type of waste offers environmental benefits, resource conservation, and cost savings. While
various additives have been explored to enhance the physical and mechanical attributes of gypsum plasters, their implementation has often
compromised the bonding between the gypsum matrix and the additives at higher concentrations. The need for further advancements has
led to the exploration of carbon nanomaterials, such as graphene nanofibers (GNFs), to unlock new possibilities and improve the quality
of gypsum-based components.
GNFs possess exceptional mechanical, thermal, and electronic
properties that can improve the strength, durability, and fire resistance of these composites, while also acting as a reinforcing agent,
enhancing the bonding between gypsum particles, and reducing the
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susceptibility to cracking and spalling. Recent research has explored
the potential of GNFs, to enhance the properties of gypsum-based
composites. These nanofibers enabled the formation of crystallization centers, resulting in a denser structure with interlocked crystals
and improved electronic capabilities that could be beneficial for
building monitoring. The integration of graphene-based materials
(GBMs) in civil engineering has garnered significant attention for
their remarkable properties. In concrete, these additives targeted cement reduction and CO2 emissions, typically below 1 %. Nanoplatelets, on the other hand, offered sensing capabilities at concentrations
up to 20 %. While adding 2–4 % of GBMs to asphalt mixes enhanced
durability and resistance to aging, promising extended infrastructure
lifespans.
Text 6
Titanium dioxide is a nanomaterial (10–100 nm) noted for its
photocatalytic ability, an attribute exploited to increase the durability,
strength, and efficiency of composite materials in the construction
industry. Integrating TiO2 into photocatalytic cementitious composites represents an innovative approach to extend the service life of
buildings and mitigate environmental pollution. This nanomaterial is
appreciated for its economic accessibility, chemical stability, and
non-toxic character, facilitating the reduction of urban pollutants
such as nitrogen and carbon oxides when combined with cement.
The application of TiO2-based coatings on construction materials has proven to be effective in increasing their lifetime. In terms
of nanomaterial innovation, a process has been developed to synthesize single crystalline TiO2 nanowire arrays by an alkaline hydrothermal method, which includes ion exchange steps and topotactic transformation by calcination. This procedure results in nanowires that
improve the efficiency of photocatalytic and photovoltaic devices.
The synthesis of nanocrystalline TiO2 can be performed through a reactive thermal plasma process using titanium hydride (TiH2) or titanium powder as precursors.
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The ability of TiO2 to be integrated into composites is due to
its chemical and physical compatibility with a wide range of materials, which allows its adaptation to different morphologies and particle
sizes. This adaptability ensures a uniform dispersion of TiO2 within
the composite, optimizing the interaction between this nanomaterial
and the host material. Such uniformity is essential not only to enhance the photocatalytic properties of TiO2 but also to reinforce the
mechanical strength and durability of the composite material.
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UNIT 5. SUMMARY
Реферирование (summary) – это смысловое сокращение тек-
ста (напр., научной статьи) с целью извлечения из него необходимой актуальной информации. Реферирование представляет собой
творческий аналитический процесс, в результате которого большой
объем текста может быть переработан в краткое изложение.
При реферировании текста на английском языке рекомендуется следовать представленному далее алгоритму.
1. Прочитать текст, понять его содержание.
2. Выделить основную мысль текста.
3. Определить ключевые слова, идеи, аргументы.
4. Проанализировать текст по смыслу: выделить важную
и не представляющую смысловую ценность информацию.
5. Составить план реферирования.
6. Изложить своими словами текст, используя фразы-клише
(см. ниже).
Обычно текст реферирования содержит следующую информацию:
а) название статьи (если присутствует);
б) автор (если указан);
в) цель написания статьи;
г) основные проблемы, обсуждаемые в статье;
д) мнение автора об обсуждаемой проблеме;
е) ваша оценка статьи.
Для выполнения реферирования на английском языке необходимо использовать различные выражения-клише, которые помогут оформить мысль и выразить главную идею, цель статьи,
ключевые вопросы текста и т. д. Далее представлены варианты
выражений-клише для реферирования.
I. ЦЕЛЬ НАПИСАНИЯ СТАТЬИ
Цель данной статьи (состоит
в том, чтобы)
The object (purpose) of this paper is
– представить
– to present
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– обсудить
– to discuss
– описать
– to describe
– показать
– to show
– развить
– to develop
Статья выдвигает идею
The paper puts forward the idea
Статья пытается определить
The article attempts to determine
Статья посвящена
The article is devoted to
Статья обсуждает проблемы
The article deals with
Статья обращает наше внимание на проблему
The article draws our attention
to the problem of
II. НАЧАЛО СТАТЬИ
Статья начинается с короткого обсуждения
The article begins with a short
discussion on
Первый параграф касается
The first paragraph deals with /
focuses on
Сначала автор указывает, что
First the author points out that /
underlines
III. ПЕРЕХОД К ИЗЛОЖЕНИЮ
СЛЕДУЮЩЕЙ ЧАСТИ СТАТЬИ
Затем следует обсуждение
Then follows a discussion on
Следующий параграф
The next paragraph
– имеет дело
– deals with
– представляет
– presents
– обсуждает
– discusses
– описывает
– describes
Далее автор указывает, что
Further the author indicates
that
Затем автор объясняет, что
Then the author explains that
Должно быть подчеркнуто,
что
It must be emphasized that
Очевидно, что
It is evident that
Ясно, что
It is clear that
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IV. КОНЕЦ ИЗЛОЖЕНИЯ
Заключительный параграф
The final paragraph
– сообщает
– states
– представляет
– describes
– обсуждает
– sums up
– описывает
– describes
Автор обобщает, что
The author concludes that
Автор подводит итог
The author summarizes the
Подводя итог, автор подчеркивает, что
То sum up the author empha-
sizes that
В заключении следует подчеркнуть (отметить), что
In conclusion it should be emphasized (noted, observed) that
V. ОЦЕНКА СТАТЬИ
По моему мнению
In my opinion
На мой взгляд
То my mind
Я думаю
I think / I believe / I consider /
I guess
Само собой разумеется
It goes without saying
Статья
– очень важная
– имеет практическую /
теоретическую значимость
– ценная
– современная
– полезная
– интересная
The article
– is of great importance
– is of practical importance
– is of theoretical value
– is valuable
– is up-to-date
– is useful
– is of great interest
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PRACTICE EXERCISES
Exercise 1. Read the text.
What Causes Bridges to Collapse?
Bridges are complex structures that must withstand a variety of
forces, including the weight of the bridge itself, live loads such as
vehicles and pedestrians, and environmental factors. When any of
these factors exceed the bridge's capacity, it can lead to structural
failure and, in the worst-case scenario, a collapse.
One of the primary causes of bridge collapse is insufficient
structural design. If a bridge is not designed to handle the anticipated
loads and stresses it will experience during its lifespan, it becomes
vulnerable to failure.
Over time, bridges can experience material degradation due to
factors such as corrosion, fatigue, and aging. Corrosion, especially in
steel and reinforced concrete bridges, can weaken the structural components and compromise their load-bearing capacity. Fatigue, caused
by repetitive loading and unloading cycles, can lead to cracks and
fractures in the bridge elements. Aging of materials, including concrete, can result in reduced strength and increased vulnerability to
external forces.
Natural disasters pose a significant risk to bridge stability and
can cause sudden collapses. Three common natural disasters that can
affect bridges are flooding and water damage, earthquakes, and high
winds.
Inadequate construction practices can compromise a bridge's
integrity right from its initial construction phase. Issues such as poorquality control, improper installation of structural elements, inadequate concrete curing, and insufficient welding can introduce weaknesses and defects that may lead to future failures. It is crucial to adhere to rigorous construction standards and procedures to ensure the
structural soundness of bridges.
Regular maintenance and inspections are vital to identifying and
addressing potential issues before they escalate into significant prob-
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